Diabetes

Diabetes is one of the most serious a type of a disease that is often debilitating and at times the disease can be fatal. This is a disease that prevents the body from producing any amounts of insulin properly and in the same quantity, it is supposed to produce. Insulin is a body hormone that is in charge for regulating the quantity of glucose in the blood. Diabetes can cause an increase in high sugar levels that can harm the internal parts, the vessels and the mental strain in general. Our bodies need the insulin in order to use the sugar as a source of energy. Insulin is also produced in the pancreas (Gallen, 2012). In a well body system, once the blood sugars are very high, some special cells which are located in the pancreas releases the insulin. When there is less insulin in the system, the blood sugar levels will go up since there is no enough insulin to allow the body to use it as energy or in the storage of fats. Basically diabetes is of two types.

Type 1

Type 1 occurs once the body resistant system happens to wipe out all beta cells in the pancreas which are the only cells in the body which have the capability of making the insulin. People can be affected by a certain kind of diabetes called secondary diabetes which is also similar to the type 1 kind but the difference is that the immune system is not responsible for the destruction of the beta cells. In this case, the beta cells are usually damaged by a disease or a certain harm in the pancreas (Hanas, 2009). Diabetes type 1 usually affects only a small percentage of the people in the world. It affects the whites more than the black Americans. It is prone to both the men and the women similarly and even if the disease typically affects individuals who are 20 and above, it can also affect people of any age (Hanas, 2009). Currently, the disease has increased very much among the school age children and especially the whites in the United States according to a new study. The study indicates that there are more than 6,000 cases of diabetes in teenagers and the kids who are between the ages of 19 and below.

The youngsters who are between the age of 9 and 5 have also been affected by the disease but there are lower or no cases of diabetes to children below the age of 4years (Gallen, 2012). Type 1 which was formerly famous noted as juvenile diabetes remains the most predominant type of diabetes found in children. In the Europe, there have been numerous increases in diabetes type 1. Findings from the United States study of children with diabetes indicates that the disease is now affecting even the black Americans. Currently, there are more than 2million children who have diabetes in the whole of United States. The disease is still on the rise since, in the year 2009, there were only 24.4% per 100,000 kids but presently there are 27.4% per 100,000 kids according to the reports. In the world, there are only 5% of all the people in the world who have diabetes type 1 according to a research done by the association for American diabetes (Gallen, 2012).

Causes, Etiology, Symptoms

The symptoms of type 1 can be subtle in nature but they can develop into severe symptoms with time. They can include being very thirsty, having a dry mouth, a person feels to urinate very frequently, having a painful belly, a dry mouth, blurred vision, feeling weak and tired, frequent skin infections among others (Gallen, 2012). The symptoms for the diabetes type1 can begin immediately in very few weeks (Hanas, 2009). Type 1 diabetes can also be caused by the genes, viruses, and environmental factors which might trigger the occurrence of the disease.

Risk factors

Several risk factors which may make diabetes type 1 start to develop include the possibility of the generic marker which may make a person susceptible to diabetes. This generic marker is usually located mostly on chromosome 6 and it is a human leukocyte antigen (HLA). The HLA are mostly connected to the type 1 diabetes and if a person has one or more, this makes it possible to develop diabetes type 1. Viral infections have been noted by researchers to cause the immune system to turn against the body, therefore, triggering the development of diabetes type 1. Ethnicity also is a risk factor for diabetes type 1. For example, in the U.S, Caucasians are the most affected by this epidemic than the black Americans and the Hispanic Americans (Hanas, 2009). The Chinese and the South Americans, on the other hand, have almost zero chance of attracting this disease. The geographical location in many parts of the world seems to be having an effect on the people living in those areas.

People living in the northern climatic conditions have a high possibility of attracting the diabetes type 1. In this parts of the world, people spend more of their times indoors in the winters suggesting that they stay close to each other thus prone to attracting the viral infections (Gallen, 2012). In the same sense, people who live in the southern climates are less likely to attract the diabetes type 1and therefore during winter; diabetes type 1 is very common. Family history is always believed to cause the rest of the family fall for the same kind of lifestyle and diseases (Gallen, 2012). In this case, if a member of a family suffered from diabetes type 1, then it is very common that the disease will be inherited by other members of the family. Research indicates that kids who start dieting at a very tender age are more likely to develop diabetes type 1. This is mostly associated with children who are fed on the cow milk at a very tender age (Gallen, 2012).

Management

The most important objective for treatment is to always maintain the sugar intensity as regular as possible in order to delay or help in preventing any complications that might occur due to being diabetic. Taking insulin can also help in the treatment of diabetes type 1. There are several kinds of insulin mainly the long-acting for example the glargine, rapid-acting, and the intermediate. Stomach enzymes interference with the insulin actions causes the insulin not to be administered by the mouth and instead it is done from either an insulin pump or through injections (Veves et al., 2012). If a person chooses injections, then he or she can choose which type of needles he or she is comfortable with or use an insulin pump to inject under the skin. An insulin pump is a device that is worn outside the body and it is almost similar to a phone size. These types of pumps can be mounted on the waist, in the pocket or as belts. The pumps are mostly designed to provide certain amounts of insulin automatically (Gallen, 2012).This steady regular supply of the insulin is called the basal rate.

 When a person takes in a meal, he or she programs the pump with whatever amounts of carbohydrates being taken and also the blood sugar and the program gives back a bolus dose of the insulin in order to cover the meals and also rectify the blood sugars in case it is elevated. A person can also get an artificial pancreas in the treatment for diabetes. This program links the continuous glucose to an insulin pump. There is a monitor which notifies the need for insulin and communicates to the pump in order to release a certain amount of the insulin. An artificial pancreas is a new research method which is not yet available but a new development for treating diabetes type 1 (Gallen, 2012).

Injecting a diabetic with pramlintide before eating can help lower the rate at which the food is being moved in the stomach thereby curbing the increase in which blood sugars occur after every meal. Individuals with blood pressures of above 140/40 can use high blood pressure medication and this in a way helps in maintaining a healthy kidney (Gallen, 2012). Regular intake of aspirin is also recommended by the doctors. Statins are cholesterol-lowering drugs that are recommended in cholesterol victims and this can be very helpful in diabetics. Regularly monitoring the blood sugar levels is very important. Before the meals, snacks or any intake of foodstuffs is the recommended schedule of checking the blood sugar. On a normal day check the blood sugar levels at least 4 times (Gallen, 2012). The current way of monitoring the sugar levels is by use of a continuous glucose monitoring and this is helpful in the prevention of hypoglycemia. Eating healthy is a better way of treating diabetes. The meals should be nutritious, high in fiber, and low in fat levels. Taking a lot of whole grain, fruits and vegetables are recommended. Regular physical exercises are highly important. On a single day, a grown-up should take 30 minutes of aerobics such as swimming, biking and walking after a doctor’s advice (Gallen, 2012). For kids, 1 hour is the recommended amount of time one should spend having the exercises. Being flexible and having strength is the goal and is a person is not used to doing that then he or she should start early enough (Gallen, 2012).       

Prognosis

Diabetes type 1 can affect mainly all the essential parts of the body which includes the nerves, kidneys, eye sight, the heart and every blood vessel. Stabilizing the blood sugar can in very many cases help in reducing the effects of the many complications which can be brought about by the diabetes (Gallen, 2012). Cardiovascular problems can occur including affecting the coronary arteries. Stroke, narrowing of the main arteries and heart attack can be the outcome.  

Diabetes type 2

Type 2 kind of diabetes is a long life type which affects in every way the handling of the glucose level in the blood (Barnett, 2012). Many people living in the United States have his type of diabetes. Study research indicates that there are more than 27million people living with diabetes today and another group of more than 86 million who have pre-diabetes (Barnett, 2012). This person living with pre-diabetes has their blood sugars as standard though not already elevated enough to be diagnosed as diabetes (Barnett, 2012). About 90% of people in the world who have diabetes have type 2.  Type 2 is commonly found in grownups but in kids also (Barnett, 2012).

Etiology and Symptoms

The indicator of type 2 is almost comparable to the type 1 but in most cases they are mild and individuals suffering from diabetes cannot notice them (Nabors, 2016). They include having a blurry vision, wounds which do not heal, occasionally being irritable, feeling so worn out, having to pee a lot, a yeast infection that does not seem to disappear forever, and being excessively thirsty.

 Causes

Type 2 is commonly caused by a number of factors such as the kind of lifestyle a person is living and the genes. Overweight, physical inactivity and being obese can cause diabetes type 1. Individuals who are physically inactive, and obese and very overweight are most likely in a position to attract diabetes type 2 (Barnett, 2012). Having extra weight causes insulin resistance and this is a risky state. The body fat location in our bodies makes the difference. Having the extra belly fat is highly linked to increasing the risk of insulin resistance and also the blood and heart vessel disease. To note that you are at the risk of attracting diabetes type 2 if one needs to first check his or her Body Mass Index. Insulin resistance is also a high contributor to diabetes type 2. Diabetes in the real sense begins with the body lacking enough insulin in the body which is a condition where the muscles, the liver, and also the fat cells usually do not use the insulin accordingly (Barnett, 2012). This, as a result, causes the body to require more of the insulin in order to help the glucose to enter into the cells.

Initially, the pancreas creates more of the insulin to help the body keep up with the high demand of the insulin. However, after some time the pancreas cannot keep up with the demand and now it cannot make the required insulin making the blood glucose levels to go up. Too much of the glucose in the liver also causes the diabetes type 2. When the blood sugar is less, the liver creates and sends the glucose out. When a person is eating, the blood sugar rises and in this case, the liver will slow down the supply and store the glucose for later. In other people, the liver does not stop the supply of the sugar and so it keeps adding (Barnett, 2012). Poor communication between the cells will at times send the wrong idea or at times fail to receive the messages send correctly. In case these difficulties affect how the cells create and also use the insulin or the glucose, these chain reaction can cause the occurrence diabetes. 

Broken data cells also can cause diabetes. When the cells that are responsible for making the insulin send incorrect quantity of insulin during the incorrect time, the sugar levels is eliminated and the glucose will destroy the cell.   

Threat factors

Diabetes type two is mostly influenced by the kind of lifestyle we live. Insulin resistance as discussed earlier is the main factor which means that the body can no longer use the insulin the body supplies (Barnett, 2012). The body can have a steady supply of insulin needed to transport glucose but the body resists the insulin. Family history can be a contributor of the diabetes type two from the hereditary factors. Race is also a contributor to diabetes type 2. Age in many cases is a contributor to diabetes type 2 especially individuals who are above the age of 45 and when one hits 65, the probability increases (Barnett, 2012). During gestation period, if a person develops diabetes then it is likely that the person will develop diabetes type 2 (Barnett, 2012). The polycystic ovary syndrome increases the chances since this is highly related to the insulin resistance (Barnett, 2012).

Treatment

Eating healthy meals reduces the effects of diabetes type 2. There are no specific diets for people suffering from diabetes type 2 but it is advisable that one should concentrate on a high fiber meal with less fat. Avoiding the intake of animal products, sweets, and carbohydrates that are refined reduce diabetes type 2 (Barnett, 2012). Meals with the little glycemic index is useful. Glycemic index is a calibration of how fast the food causes the rise in sugar levels. Regular exercises, monitoring the blood sugar levels, and having diabetes medication can also help in the treatment (Veves et al., 2012).

Prognosis

Diabetes type 2 can affect mainly all the essential parts of the body which includes the nerves, kidneys, eye sight, the heart and every blood vessel. Stabilizing the blood sugar in a normal aged human being can in very many cases help in reducing the effects of the many complications which can be brought about by the diabetes (Barnett, 2012). Cardiovascular problems can occur including affecting the coronary arteries. Stroke, narrowing of the main arteries and heart attack can be the outcome. There can also be the damaging of the complete nerve system since the glucose can infect the blood vessels in the body very fast. The destruction of the eye sight can also be a possible outcome with this kind of diabetes.

Part 2

Jim is a fifteen-year-old boy who was diagnosed with diabetic at the age of fourteen. Still a school going kid who does not enjoy life since the physical challenges he has to live with are still fresh in his mind. His parents have been his most supportive friends since at school he cannot associate much with whatever other kids are doing (Nabors, 2016). This feeling of being left out in the society has affected his thinking and his morale in life. In the real sense, diabetes was a problem of the old who had enjoyed much in life without warnings or having encountered any hardships during their childhood. Currently, the disease has been affecting even the young kids who do not even have an idea what kind of a disease it is. Living with diabetes is the hardest work a kid of this age can be given.

Health implications

Children start to feel the feeling of being left out in the society and also feeling like a burden to their parents. The feeling of being in denial is also very common among the kids since every kid wants to do and act like the other kinds which are sometimes very difficult since the kids have to act independently in order to avoid the dangerous encounters. Children start to feel very guilty of their conditions even though they never developed diabetes knowingly. They start feeling like they are causing too much trouble to their parents, teachers, and also their siblings (Nabors, 2016). There is the feeling of anger, resentment and frustrations in life may occur. Parents might be spending so much in treating their kids and this creates a negative perception in the minds of the kids. He might reject any medications since he feels that the burden on their parents is too much and therefore boycott taking any more medicine. Fear and anxiety may be created in the minds of kids, therefore, causing panic in most cases.

Educational implications

Diabetic kids have had a very hard time trying to cope with the trends and this has made it difficult to concentrate on their studies, therefore, becoming weak in their studies. Diabetes causes the diminishing of the neuronal functions thereby leading to the cognitive dysfunction in certain areas such as intelligence, the memory, information processing, attention, learning process, and academic achievements. Impaired intelligence, attention, and memory of the children are the leading disadvantage of children with diabetes. Type 1 is a highly dangerous type of diabetes in children which is mainly associated with the cognitive deficits especially during adolescent without regarding the quality of metabolic controls and the disease duration (Gallen, 2012). The basic understanding of the knowledge may be affected thereby affecting the performance of the children who have been diagnosed with diabetes. Conceptual learning and understanding have also been adversely affected by diabetes thereby deteriorating in memory of the kids compare to kids who are healthy. The reductions in cognitive functions are mostly associated with the disease duration and the hyperglycemia with early onset raising the risk of developing problems.  This generally indicates that the children who are diabetic have a lower level of understanding than the others. Jim faces this and other major scholarly challenges which have made his life more complex than it used to be (Veves et al., 2012). Getting lower grades in school is not something anybody wants or any parent wants for any kid, it is not a choice but fighting to reduce the effects of this disease will maybe pay off in a better way.

Psychosocial needs/implications

Psychosocial needs are also known as the Psychosocial factors which include complex environment, behavioral, social, and emotional factors. The parents and kids who have diabetes are mostly challenged by the effects of complex environments. In promotion of optimal medical outcomes and the psychological well-being of the kids and parents in general, there has to be uninterrupted attention and care done on a regular basis (Gallen, 2012). This is usually described as providing the care that is respectful and very essential to the patients as they cannot survive without being taken care of in a good manner. Practicing of personalized psychosocial care needs a lot of commitment and undivided attention, problem identification, psychosocial screening, and evaluation services need to be taken into account seriously. Jim's parents had to always be there to provide that care that is needed all the time in order to prevent any implications that might be triggered by diabetes. Optimal monitoring is required to allow the self-management impact to take effect. Assessing the life circumstances which affect the psychological health and physical outcomes and their incorporation to inventions methodologies is a psychosocial need to diabetics. Addressing any psychosocial problems is highly recommended once the problem is identified. If there will be no follow up when the problem is discovered, then a referral to a qualified health care unit is very important.

What the kids need while at school

Children mostly rely on the parents and the school management in ensuring that the conditions are managed effectively while at school. The kid needs undivided attention from both the parent and the school since without it; there could be other complications which might affect him extensively. For the parents, certain organizations such as an association American offers the type 1 with confirmation forms which alert the school of the child’s conditions and also give directives on what ought to be done at such a case (Veves et al., 2012). For the school management, the center for disease control and prevention give an overview of the crucial considerations for the schools which have children such as Jim who has diabetes type 1.

Organizations assistance

Certain organizations like the juvenile diabetes association and the associations for diabetes in American have established ways in which such children can be assisted (Nabors, 2016). They provide both the parents and the schools with a form which will be used in making sure that the kids do not suffer. The forms outline what should be done to the kids in case he or she needs help and care.

References

Barnett, A. H. (2012). Type 2 diabetes. Oxford: Oxford University Press.  

Gallen, I. (2012). Type 1 diabetes: Clinical management of the athlete. London: Springer.

Hanas, R. (2009). Type 1 diabetes in children, adolescents and young adults: How to become an   expert on your own diabetes. London: Class Pub.

Nabors, L. (2016). Medical and Mental Health During Childhood: Psychosocial Perspectives        and Positive Outcomes.

Prince-Embury, S., & Saklofske, D. H. (2014). Resilience interventions for youth in diverse            populations.

Veves, A., Giurini, J. M., & LoGerfo, F. W. (2012). The diabetic foot: Medical and surgical             management. New York, N.Y: Humana Press.

Arthritis/ Identification of Pathophysiology of Osteoarthritis and Rheumatoid Arthritis

            Osteoarthritis is a type of joint disease that occurs as a result of the breakdown of the cartilage, thus leading into pain, swelling and stiffness. Its symptom is mostly stiffness. The tissue mainly affected in the disease is the cartilage. The initial abnormality that indicates the inception of osteoarthritis is the malfunctioning of the chondrocyte that affects the composition of the cartilage (Huether & McCance, 2012). It leads to a reduction in the production of the large proteins used in retaining water within the cartilage hence it dehydrates. In its early stages, the bone is laid down which tries to strengthen the area however, it fatigues with time. Therefore, micro-fractures are developed that cause swelling in the bone near the joint and that marks the start of the joint deformity (McPhee & Hammer, 2012).

            Conversely, rheumatoid arthritis is an autoimmune disease caused by inflammation in the joints. The initial triggers of this disease are not clear; genetics, environmental factors or hormones may all be the cause. Once the immune is triggered, antibodies and inflammatory cytokines are produced which creates a cascade of inflammation hence the formation of pannus (McPhee & Hammer, 2012). The pannus destroys the cartilage causing more damages and complications to the joint. Unlike the osteoarthritis, rheumatoid affects multiple joints.

Selected factors: gender and age

            According to the study on the two diseases, rheumatoid arthritis can occur between 20 to 30 years of age and goes to its peak at the age of 35 to 50 years. Similarly, the occurrence of rheumatoid is higher in women as compared to men. For osteoarthritis, it highly occurs at 65 years of age and above and frequently in women after their 50 years of age (McPhee & Hammer, 2012).

            The diagnosis of both osteoarthritis and rheumatoid is based on the patient history. The radiologic evidence must be obtained to rule out the presence of the disease for instance for osteoarthritis, asymmetrical narrowing of the joint is observed. Various treatment strategies are taken to improve the condition of both osteoarthritis and rheumatoid (Huether & McCance, 2012). For osteoarthritis, treatment is more of symptomatic whereas for rheumatoid, treatment can reduce or even prevent the development. In addition, exercise is recommended for both osteoarthritis and rheumatoid in order to maintain joint function.

References

Huether, S. E., & McCance, K. L. (2012). Understanding pathophysiology.

McPhee, S. J., & Hammer, G. D. (2012). Pathophysiology of disease: An introduction to clinical medicine (Laureate Education, Inc., custom ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Medical.

Transitioning From Closed To Open Systems

How do effective nurse leaders and others approach problem solving and decision making in organizations?

            There are various approaches that nurse leaders and other involved parties solve problems and make decisions in an organization in order to cope with the authenticity of the health care system in today’s world. The most important of all, nurses must be geared up to be critical thinkers (Yoder-Wise, 2013). Critical thinking is a mental process of skillfully analyzing, conceptualizing, synthesizing and applying given information in order to reach a particular conclusion. A leader must reach a level of owning full knowledge of the issue to be solved. This can help in generating a number of alternatives for evaluation, hence deriving to a final decision.

            Preparedness is also another item in the decision making model. A nurse leader has to identify time to analyze the situation, choose the best alternatives suitable for the situation, and thereafter come up with the best decision to suit that particular situation (Yoder-Wise, 2013). Analysis of the situation requires enough preparation to come up with appropriate alternatives. Therefore, leaders need enough time to systematically examine the problem and generate creative alternatives for the solution (Meyer & O’Brien-Pallas, 2010).

            Additionally, personal factors may also influence nurses’ clinical decision-making. For instance, a nurse leader needs to be competent and self-confident while dealing with a problem. Other factors may be external such as access to nursing education, supportive resources that may also strengthen decision-making among the nurses (Murray, 2017). Therefore, specific entities that have employed nurses have a responsibility to develop strategies that facilitate decision-making and problem solving for the nurses.

References

Meyer, R. M., & O’Brien-Pallas, L. L. (2010). Nursing services delivery theory: An open system approach. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 66(12), 2828–2838.
Retrieved from the Walden Library databases.

Yoder-Wise, P. S. (2013). Leading and Managing in Nursing - Revised Reprint. London: Elsevier Health Sciences.

Murray, E. J. (2017). Nursing leadership and management for patient safety and quality care.

Article: The impact of traumatic events on emergency room nurses: Findings from a questionnaire survey

This article examine how often nurses are exposed to the traumatic events in the emergency room and the nature of such traumatic events. It also examined the percentage of nurses reported post-traumatic stress symptoms and how frequency of exposure to traumatic incidences, social support and copying help in the recovery process. In the article, the proportion of nurses who reported Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and other symptoms like fatigue, anxiety, somatic complaints and the contribution of such issues stress. PTSD refers to anxiety disorder which occurs due to experiencing or being confronted with or witnessing events that are lead to traumatic stress (Adriaenssens, De Gucht, & Maes, 2012).  Such an event can be so severe that it can overwhelm an individual’s ability to manage and this leads to abnormally severe behavioral and emotional reactions.  The incidence of this condition is more common among the nurses operating in emergency rooms than any other specialties of nursing. The incidences were mostly found in various studies that have been carried out, examining the exposure type and frequency during emergency. Such research has shown the  events that are most distressing which includes  cases involving children , cot death, dealing with families and patients  of the patients , caring for burn patients and psychiatric patients and even handling the  bodies of the deceased.  Moreover, the chaotic working conditions and even overcrowding can also tamper with recovery process and affect the emergency nurse negatively (Adriaenssens, De Gucht, & Maes, 2012).

Nurses working in the emergency rooms encounter severe deaths, injuries, sufferings and even suicide while at the same time, being exposed to physical and verbal aggression. A review of a study found that 75 % of nurses working in emergency rooms in a single year faced aggressive behavior in comparison to 43 percent of nurses working in wards for internal medicine, 23 percent working in surgical words and 9.9 percent working in pediatric words (Adriaenssens, De Gucht, & Maes, 2012).  While not all exposure to traumatic events cause PTSD, it has been found that exposure to such events may lead to considerable psychological effects. It has been shown that such events leads to impacts like depression and irritability, nightmares, difficulties in sleeping and diminished interest in normal life (Gelsema, et. al 2005).  The general effect is a change in attitudes towards the professional and hence more absenteeism and productivity loss and reduced quality in nursing care. However, psychological and physiological responses to such events should be considered a usual way reacting to such situations and in many of the cases the responses reduce as time passes.

Lack of enough social support or inadequate coping can lead to worsening and persistence of symptoms of this condition on the involved nurses. Therefore, two strategies for copying are distinguished which includes coping that is task or problem oriented and a strategy that is focused on emotions. Task oriented strategy comprises of attempting dealing with the situation itself while emotion-based strategy comprises of various efforts aimed at regulating emotions that a nurse experiences due to the stressful  occurrence.  Time is an important task in copying strategies which can be incorporated to an active approach of finding solution during the care intervention (Ahwal & Arora, 2015). An emotional copying tactic that is an avoidant like distraction can be necessary in nursing in the emergency rooms so that they continually function, while in the long-run it may affect the recovery and therefore cause PTSD symptoms. A social network that is supportive is seen to prevent the development of such symptoms, while lack of such support combined with poor communication in a team has been known to cause fatigue and post-traumatic stress issues for the emergency workers (Gelsema, et. al 2005).

The study involved emergency nurses/respondents of whom 55.6 % were female with a mean age of 33.76 years. Nearly 74 % were in relationships while 42 % did not have resident children. Job experience mean was 11.21 years, nearly one third had fulltime jobs, 88.7 percent worked in shifts and all of them worked in emergency care at health facilities. 13 % had not encountered a traumatic even over the past 6 months , 15 % indicated having  a single event , 32 percent two-three , 23 percent four-five and 17 percent six or above(Adriaenssens, De Gucht, & Maes, 2012) . Hence, the research question on exposure frequency and type of traumatic events showed that many of the nurses had encountered a traumatic even in the emergency healthcare. Compared to other nursing specialties, the general nurse population has fewer cases of traumatic exposures than nurses in emergency care and is more comparable to personnel working with ambulances. As found in other researches, the type of traumatic incidence mostly encountered includes sudden death mainly of small children or adolescents and it is also shown to be the most depressing. In addition, it was found that considerable part of the nurses had somatic complaints and psychological distress that surpassed sub-clinical levels(Adriaenssens, De Gucht, & Maes, 2012). The experience of traumatic events is shown to strongly relate to such PTSD symptoms other outcomes apart from fatigue.

The article shows that nurses in emergency rooms are frequently exposed to traumatic incidents and these have considerable negative impacts on their physical and psychological health.  The findings are important for both the nurses and hospital management given that the effects of such stress can lead to increased sickness off-days, reduced job performance and satisfaction and low quality of nursing care. The finding stresses the need for coming with strategies that will ensure nursing are copying well with the situation and in the recovery process. Over the past decade, intervention strategies have been shown to enhance copying among the health care workers which can also be used for the emergency room nurses.  The article also highlights the need for strategies to consider the behavioral and emotional aspect of the nurses which should also be combined with relaxation techniques.  The importance of enough social support from social network which will ensure good communication and emphatic leadership cannot be downplayed. Hence, interpersonal relationships that are based on good communication can assist in alleviating the situation (Lu et. al 2015).  Given that traumatic stress is experienced more in the emergency rooms than other nursing specialties, it is necessary to pay attention to this field to prevent negative attitude towards the profession.

Ethical considerations

The article observed some standards in conducting this study and included getting approval of Ethical Committee if Leiden University. The values involved while conducting the research involved guaranteeing confidentiality to all the respondents while ensuring an informed consent was obtained from each. This was important to allow participants the freedom to be involved.

References

Adriaenssens, J., De Gucht, V., & Maes, S. (2012). The impact of traumatic events on emergency room nurses: Findings from a questionnaire survey. International journal of nursing studies, 49(11), 1411-1422.

Gelsema, T. I., Van Der Doef, M., Maes, S., Akerboom, S., & Verhoeven, C. (2005). Job Stress in the Nursing Profession: The Influence of Organizational and Environmental Conditions and Job Characteristics. International Journal of Stress Management, 12(3), 222.

Ahwal, S., & Arora, S. (2015). Workplace Stress for Nurses in Emergency Department. International Journal of Emergency and Trauma Nursing, 1(2).

Lu, D. M., Sun, N., Hong, S., Fan, Y. Y., Kong, F. Y., & Li, Q. J. (2015). Occupational stress and coping strategies among Emergency Department Nurses of China. Archives of psychiatric nursing, 29(4), 208-212.

MEMORANDUM

TO:

CC:

FROM:

DATE:

SUBJECT: The best Candidate for the Heart Transplant

This Memorandum has been prepared by _________.  This memorandum is significant for showing the approach which was used, and how it was utilized in order to choose the most appropriate candidate for the heart transplant. The memorandum therefore explains the criteria which I used in order to be able to reach a specific candidate out of the three. Each of the three candidates had a medical problem which affected their health, thus making them to require a heart transplant. In that case, in order to be able to come up with the right criteria, I would need to use a potential approach which would be in the best importance fit for the candidates (Ruggiero, 2014). In this examination, the practical ethical rational methodology was utilized in order to identify the contestant who best fitted, and the contestant who would benefit fully from the heart, from the donor.

In that case, the approach employed will consequently illustrate that of the three candidates, Ozzy, who is 38 years old, homeless and a drug user, is the most appropriate candidate for the heart transfer. Lisa 12 years old, who is the youngest of the three candidates, she is supposed to be the most suitable candidate for the transplant, however, she has other long life illnesses, and this transplant may not be very imported for her health. Even after a heart transplant, Lisa may not be able to survive for long, since other illnesses might affect the heart. Jerry who is 55 years old, and also the head of the family, is a mid-level manager at a carpet industry, is the oldest of the three candidates, hence being the list suitable candidate for the transplant (Ruggiero, 2014). This is basically because Jerry has lived for more than half of his life expectancy, and an operation is very risky due to his age. Ozzy, the homeless and drug abuser, best fits the transplant, since he is young and he has never experienced any long-term illness throughout his life. The main problem with him is the abuse of drugs, and if this problem is fixed, then he can be able to live peacefully without any problem at all. If the transplant is successful, Ozzy can be able to deal with drug abuse, since it is not a disease, but it is something which he can be able to overcome. In addition, he is fairly young as compared to Jerry, and if he is given this opportunity, then he can be able to change his ways and become a better person in life.

Through assessing the concerns of the actions, and by taking a keen look at utilitarianism, a thing needs to be moral by itself, apart from any other consequences, and other values which are thought to acquire their value. Acts ought to therefore be considered either ethically right or wrong only if the consequences are very significant (Ruggiero, 2014). The main reason as to why I ended up choosing utilitarian approach was to determine if the consequences would be right or wrong. Utilitarianism consequently allows us to be able to see the other side of the picture, through looking at the future consequences of the given actions. In so doing, we can be able to come up with the best decisions.

Reference

Ruggiero, V. R. (2014). Thinking critically about ethical issues.

HIV/AIDS epidemic in Ethiopia

Healthcare access is a vital component in the general development of health globally and a necessary human right. While acceptability and access to improved care are complicated concepts that associate directly with socio-ecological forces individual forces are well known to impacting HIV care significantly. Some of these factors that affect individual care include poverty level, low awareness of healthcare options and the lack of immediate initiation of healthcare treatment (FDRE, 2014). Ethiopia being a developing state socio-economic variance level that involves wealth disparities in distribution, resources access as well as income affects individuals when it comes to accessing quality care and information (AHO, 2014). Socio-economic stability is normally measured in reference to the combination of occupation, income, and education.

Since most individuals in Ethiopia exists under low socio-economic levels this implies that they are subjected to poor education, housing, and health which affects their ability to acquire HIV treatment on time. In addition, quality information that is customized for the understanding of these individuals groups that have not acquired the literacy level is usually a challenge (Etharc, 2017). Knowledge is of particular significance when it comes to health care access as it acts as the guide in making sound and responsible decision. In addition, healthcare resources are usually distributed unequally due to the scarcity and this affects the potential for individuals to acquire immediate treatment. Income is the primary socio-ecological individual force that has contributed to the spread of HIV in Ethiopia and hindered the general ability of the state to achieve efficiency in prevention. Due to low income, the highest population that is affected by HIV is subjected to poverty which generally implies that treatment initiation is delayed and as compared to the well-off patients their chances of survival are minimized (Etharc, 2017). In addition, reduced access to HIV preventive and health insurance services contributes highly to the disparities amid the wealth and the poor individuals.

References

African Health Observatory. (2014). Analytical Summary- HIV/AIDS. Retrieved from http://www.aho.afro.who.int/profiles_information/index.php/Ethiopia:Analytical_summary_-_HIV/AIDS

Etharc. (2017). Impact of HIV/AIDS in Ethiopia. Retrieved from http://www.etharc.org/oromia/resources/kit/ARTInfotoolkit.pdf

Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. (2014).Country progress report on the HIV Response. Retrieved from http://www.unaids.org/sites/default/files/country/documents/ETH_narrative_report_2014.pdf

Positive mentality

Importance of staying positive: https://youtu.be/uV7e59e7Hyo

When a person changes the thinking about themselves, this influences how that person and the circumstances which made the change to change indefinitely. Our thoughts basically shape the way the reality will appear. People attend the motivation speaking forums and meetings, buy the books on the same motivational forum but the wonder is why are they all not rich or successful after reading the books. This is since they use a lot of their time trying to solve the outside other than using the subconscious mind. It changes how a person thinks. Believing makes what a person thinks the truth.

Positive thinking: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1O9EUzfg_zQ&feature=youtu.be

In life, there are always two kinds of people on the road to success, the positive and the negative category of people. Both of this two people are very crucial and important in life since they influence an action. To be successful, learn to take the action and to take lead in life. The kinds of people who take lead and ensure that they surround themselves with positive minds will be forever successful. The challenges a person goes through in life such as sickness will be there to make a person strong and focused. Challenges on the way should encourage not discourage.

Power of attitude: http://www.simpletruths.com/motivational-videos-on-attitude.html

The number one reasons for success are being positive minded and disciplined in every manner. People in the world are al like the dynamite where the power is in the inside but no action is taken to light the light for the positivity to be exposed. The courage inside does not always roar since at times it is that inner voice that is ever quiet but in the end having a thought about how to try again tomorrow. Some of the things which do matter most in life will never are at the mercy of things which do not matter. Stay positive.  

Works cited

http://www.simpletruths.com/motivational-videos-on-attitude.html

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1O9EUzfg_zQ&feature=youtu.be

https://youtu.be/uV7e59e7Hyo

Diabetes

Diabetes is one of the most serious a type of a disease that is often debilitating and at times the disease can be fatal. This is a disease that prevents the body from producing any amounts of insulin properly and in the same quantity, it is supposed to produce. Insulin is a body hormone that is in charge for regulating the quantity of glucose in the blood. Diabetes can cause an increase in high sugar levels that can harm the internal parts, the vessels and the mental strain in general. Our bodies need the insulin in order to use the sugar as a source of energy. Insulin is also produced in the pancreas (Gallen, 2012). In a well body system, once the blood sugars are very high, some special cells which are located in the pancreas releases the insulin. When there is less insulin in the system, the blood sugar levels will go up since there is no enough insulin to allow the body to use it as energy or in the storage of fats. Basically diabetes is of two types.

Type 1

Type 1 occurs once the body resistant system happens to wipe out all beta cells in the pancreas which are the only cells in the body which have the capability of making the insulin. People can be affected by a certain kind of diabetes called secondary diabetes which is also similar to the type 1 kind but the difference is that the immune system is not responsible for the destruction of the beta cells. In this case, the beta cells are usually damaged by a disease or a certain harm in the pancreas (Hanas, 2009). Diabetes type 1 usually affects only a small percentage of the people in the world. It affects the whites more than the black Americans. It is prone to both the men and the women similarly and even if the disease typically affects individuals who are 20 and above, it can also affect people of any age. Currently, the disease has increased very much among the school age children and especially the whites in the United States according to a new study. The study indicates that there are more than 6,000 cases of diabetes in teenagers and the kids who are between the ages of 19 and below.

The youngsters who are between the age of 9 and 5 have also been affected by the disease but there are lower or no cases of diabetes to children below the age of 4years (Gallen, 2012). Type 1 which was formerly famous noted as juvenile diabetes remains the most predominant type of diabetes found in children. In the Europe, there have been numerous increases in diabetes type 1. Findings from the United States study of children with diabetes indicates that the disease is now affecting even the black Americans. Currently, there are more than 2million children who have diabetes in the whole of United States. The disease is still on the rise since, in the year 2009, there were only 24.4% per 100,000 kids but presently there are 27.4% per 100,000 kids according to the reports. In the world, there are only 5% of all the people in the world who have diabetes type 1 according to a research done by the association for American diabetes.

Causes, Etiology, Symptoms

The symptoms of type 1 can be subtle in nature but they can develop into severe symptoms with time. They can include being very thirsty, having a dry mouth, a person feels to urinate very frequently, having a painful belly, a dry mouth, blurred vision, feeling weak and tired, frequent skin infections etc. The symptoms for the diabetes type1 can begin immediately in very few weeks (Hanas, 2009). Type 1 diabetes can also be caused by the genes, viruses, and environmental factors which might trigger the occurrence of the disease.

Risk factors

Several risk factors which may make diabetes type 1 start to develop include the possibility of the generic marker which may make a person susceptible to diabetes. This generic marker is usually located mostly on chromosome 6 and it is a human leukocyte antigen (HLA). The HLA are mostly connected to the type 1 diabetes and if a person has one or more, this makes it possible to develop diabetes type 1. Viral infections have been noted by researchers to cause the immune system to turn against the body, therefore, triggering the development of diabetes type 1. Ethnicity also is a risk factor for diabetes type 1. For example, in the U.S, Caucasians are the most affected by this epidemic than the black Americans and the Hispanic Americans (Hanas, 2009). The Chinese and the South Americans, on the other hand, have almost zero chance of attracting this disease. The geographical location in many parts of the world seems to be having an effect on the people living in those areas.

People living in the northern climatic conditions have a high possibility of attracting the diabetes type 1. In this parts of the world, people spend more of their times indoors in the winters suggesting that they stay close to each other thus prone to attracting the viral infections. In the same sense, people who live in the southern climates are less likely to attract the diabetes type 1and therefore during winter; diabetes type 1 is very common. Family history is always believed to cause the rest of the family fall for the same kind of lifestyle and diseases (Gallen, 2012). In this case, if a member of a family suffered from diabetes type 1, then it is very common that the disease will be inherited by other members of the family. Research indicates that kids who start dieting at a very tender age are more likely to develop diabetes type 1. This is mostly associated with children who are fed on the cow milk at a very tender age.

Management

The most important objective for treatment is to always maintain the sugar intensity as regular as possible in order to delay or help in preventing any complications that might occur due to being diabetic. Taking insulin can also help in the treatment of diabetes type 1. There are several kinds of insulin mainly the long-acting for example the glargine, rapid-acting, and the intermediate. Stomach enzymes interference with the insulin actions causes the insulin not to be administered by the mouth and instead it is done from either an insulin pump or through injections (Veves et al., 2012). If a person chooses injections, then he or she can choose which type of needles he or she is comfortable with or use an insulin pump to inject under the skin. An insulin pump is a device that is worn outside the body and it is almost similar to a phone size. These types of pumps can be mounted on the waist, in the pocket or as belts. The pumps are mostly designed to provide certain amounts of insulin automatically (Gallen, 2012).This steady regular supply of the insulin is called the basal rate.

 When a person takes in a meal, he or she programs the pump with whatever amounts of carbohydrates being taken and also the blood sugar and the program gives back a bolus dose of the insulin in order to cover the meals and also rectify the blood sugars in case it is elevated. A person can also get an artificial pancreas in the treatment for diabetes. This program links the continuous glucose to an insulin pump. There is a monitor which notifies the need for insulin and communicates to the pump in order to release a certain amount of the insulin. An artificial pancreas is a new research method which is not yet available but a new development for treating diabetes type 1.

Injecting a diabetic with pramlintide before eating can help lower the rate at which the food is being moved in the stomach thereby curbing the increase in which blood sugars occur after every meal. Individuals with blood pressures of above 140/40 can use high blood pressure medication and this in a way helps in maintaining a healthy kidney. Regular intake of aspirin is also recommended by the doctors. Statins are cholesterol-lowering drugs that are recommended in cholesterol victims and this can be very helpful in diabetics. Regularly monitoring the blood sugar levels is very important. Before the meals, snacks or any intake of foodstuffs is the recommended schedule of checking the blood sugar. On a normal day check the blood sugar levels at least 4 times. The current way of monitoring the sugar levels is by use of a continuous glucose monitoring and this is helpful in the prevention of hypoglycemia. Eating healthy is a better way of treating diabetes. The meals should be nutritious, high in fiber, and low in fat levels. Taking a lot of whole grain, fruits and vegetables are recommended. Regular physical exercises are highly important. On a single day, a grown-up should take 30 minutes of aerobics such as swimming, biking and walking after a doctor’s advice. For kids, 1 hour is the recommended amount of time one should spend having the exercises. Being flexible and having strength is the goal and is a person is not used to doing that then he or she should start early enough.       

Diabetes type 2

Type 2 kind of diabetes is a long life type which affects in every way the handling of the glucose level in the blood. Many people living in the United States have his type of diabetes. Study research indicates that there are more than 27million people living with diabetes today and another group of more than 86 million who have pre-diabetes. This person living with pre-diabetes has their blood sugars as standard though not already elevated enough to be diagnosed as diabetes (Barnett, 2012). About 90% of people in the world who have diabetes have type 2.  Type 2 is commonly found in grownups but in kids also.

Etiology and Symptoms

The indicator of type 2 is almost comparable to the type 1 but in most cases they are mild and individuals suffering from diabetes cannot notice them (Nabors, 2016). They include having a blurry vision, wounds which do not heal, occasionally being irritable, feeling so worn out, having to pee a lot, a yeast infection that does not seem to disappear forever, and being excessively thirsty.

 Causes

Type 2 is commonly caused by a number of factors such as the kind of lifestyle a person is living and the genes. Overweight, physical inactivity and being obese can cause diabetes type 1. Individuals who are physically inactive, and obese and very overweight are most likely in a position to attract diabetes type 2. Having extra weight causes insulin resistance and this is a risky state. The body fat location in our bodies makes the difference. Having the extra belly fat is highly linked to increasing the risk of insulin resistance and also the blood and heart vessel disease. To note that you are at the risk of attracting diabetes type 2 if one needs to first check his or her Body Mass Index. Insulin resistance is also a high contributor to diabetes type 2. Diabetes in the real sense begins with the body lacking enough insulin in the body which is a condition where the muscles, the liver, and also the fat cells usually do not use the insulin accordingly (Barnett, 2012). This, as a result, causes the body to require more of the insulin in order to help the glucose to enter into the cells.

Initially, the pancreas creates more of the insulin to help the body keep up with the high demand of the insulin. However, after some time the pancreas cannot keep up with the demand and now it cannot make the required insulin making the blood glucose levels to go up. Too much of the glucose in the liver also causes the diabetes type 2. When the blood sugar is less, the liver creates and sends the glucose out. When a person is eating, the blood sugar rises and in this case, the liver will slow down the supply and store the glucose for later. In other people, the liver does not stop the supply of the sugar and so it keeps adding (Barnett, 2012). Poor communication between the cells will at times send the wrong idea or at times fail to receive the messages send correctly. In case these difficulties affect how the cells create and also use the insulin or the glucose, these chain reaction can cause the occurrence diabetes. 

Broken data cells also can cause diabetes. When the cells that are responsible for making the insulin send incorrect quantity of insulin during the incorrect time, the sugar levels is eliminated and the glucose will destroy the cell.

Threat factors

Diabetes type two is mostly influenced by the kind of lifestyle we live. Insulin resistance as discussed earlier is the main factor which means that the body can no longer use the insulin the body supplies. The body can have a steady supply of insulin needed to transport glucose but the body resists the insulin. Family history can be a contributor of the diabetes type two from the hereditary factors. Race is also a contributor to diabetes type 2. Age in many cases is a contributor to diabetes type 2 especially individuals who are above the age of 45 and when one hits 65, the probability increases. During gestation period, if a person develops diabetes then it is likely that the person will develop diabetes type 2. The polycystic ovary syndrome increases the chances since this is highly related to the insulin resistance.

Treatment

Eating healthy meals reduces the effects of diabetes type 2. There are no specific diets for people suffering from diabetes type 2 but it is advisable that one should concentrate on a high fiber meal with less fat. Avoiding the intake of animal products, sweets, and carbohydrates that are refined reduce diabetes type 2 (Barnett, 2012). Meals with the little glycemic index is useful. Glycemic index is a calibration of how fast the food causes the rise in sugar levels. Regular exercises, monitoring the blood sugar levels, and having diabetes medication can also help in the treatment (Veves et al., 2012).

Part 2

Jim is a fifteen-year-old boy who was diagnosed with diabetic at the age of fourteen. Still a school going kid who does not enjoy life since the physical challenges he has to live with are still fresh in his mind. His parents have been his most supportive friends since at school he cannot associate much with whatever other kids are doing (Nabors, 2016). This feeling of being left out in the society has affected his thinking and his morale in life. In the real sense, diabetes was a problem of the old who had enjoyed much in life without warnings or having encountered any hardships during their childhood. Currently, the disease has been affecting even the young kids who do not even have an idea what kind of a disease it is. Living with diabetes is the hardest work a kid of this age can be given.

Children start to feel the feeling of being left out in the society and also feeling like a burden to their parents. The feeling of being in denial is also very common among the kids since every kid wants to do and act like the other kinds which are sometimes very difficult since the kids have to act independently in order to avoid the dangerous encounters. Children start to feel very guilty of their conditions even though they never developed diabetes knowingly. They start feeling like they are causing too much trouble to their parents, teachers, and also their siblings (Nabors, 2016). There is the feeling of anger, resentment and frustrations in life may occur. Parents might be spending so much in treating their kids and this creates a negative perception in the minds of the kids. He might reject any medications since he feels that the burden on their parents is too much and therefore boycott taking any more medicine. Fear and anxiety may be created in the minds of kids, therefore, causing panic in most cases.

Educational implications

 Diabetic kids have had a very hard time trying to cope with the trends and this has made it difficult to concentrate on their studies, therefore, becoming weak in their studies. Diabetes causes the diminishing of the neuronal functions thereby leading to the cognitive dysfunction in certain areas such as intelligence, the memory, information processing, attention, learning process, and academic achievements. Impaired intelligence, attention, and memory of the children are the leading disadvantage of children with diabetes. Type 1 is a highly dangerous type of diabetes in children which is mainly associated with the cognitive deficits especially during adolescent without regarding the quality of metabolic controls and the disease duration (Gallen, 2012). The basic understanding of the knowledge may be affected thereby affecting the performance of the children who have been diagnosed with diabetes. Conceptual learning and understanding have also been adversely affected by diabetes thereby deteriorating in memory of the kids compare to kids who are healthy. The reductions in cognitive functions are mostly associated with the disease duration and the hyperglycemia with early onset raising the risk of developing problems.  This generally indicates that the children who are diabetic have a lower level of understanding than the others. Jim faces this and other major scholarly challenges which have made his life more complex than it used to be (Veves et al., 2012). Getting lower grades in school is not something anybody wants or any parent wants for any kid, it is not a choice but fighting to reduce the effects of this disease will maybe pay off in a better way.

Psychosocial needs/implications

Psychosocial needs are also known as the Psychosocial factors which include complex environment, behavioral, social, and emotional factors. The parents and kids who have diabetes are mostly challenged by the effects of complex environments. In promotion of optimal medical outcomes and the psychological well-being of the kids and parents in general, there has to be uninterrupted attention and care done on a regular basis (Gallen, 2012). This is usually described as providing the care that is respectful and very essential to the patients as they cannot survive without being taken care of in a good manner. Practicing of personalized psychosocial care needs a lot of commitment and undivided attention, problem identification, psychosocial screening, and evaluation services need to be taken into account seriously. Jim's parents had to always be there to provide that care that is needed all the time in order to prevent any implications that might be triggered by diabetes. Optimal monitoring is required to allow the self-management impact to take effect. Assessing the life circumstances which affect the psychological health and physical outcomes and their incorporation to inventions methodologies is a psychosocial need to diabetics. Addressing any psychosocial problems is highly recommended once the problem is identified. If there will be no follow up when the problem is discovered, then a referral to a qualified health care unit is very important.

What the kids need while at school

Children mostly rely on the parents and the school management in ensuring that the conditions are managed effectively while at school. The kid needs undivided attention from both the parent and the school since without it; there could be other complications which might affect him extensively. For the parents, certain organizations such as an association American offers the type 1 with confirmation forms which alert the school of the child’s conditions and also give directives on what ought to be done at such a case (Veves et al., 2012). For the school management, the center for disease control and prevention give an overview of the crucial considerations for the schools which have children such as Jim who has diabetes type 1.

Organizations assistance

Certain organizations like the juvenile diabetes association and the associations for diabetes in American have established ways in which such children can be assisted (Nabors, 2016). They provide both the parents and the schools with a form which will be used in making sure that the kids do not suffer. The forms outline what should be done to the kids in case he or she needs help and care.

References

Top of Form

Bottom of Form

Barnett, A. H. (2012). Type 2 diabetes. Oxford: Oxford University Press.  

Gallen, I. (2012). Type 1 diabetes: Clinical management of the athlete. London: Springer.

Hanas, R. (2009). Type 1 diabetes in children, adolescents and young adults: How to become an expert on your own diabetes. London: Class Pub.

In Prince-Embury, S., & In Saklofske, D. H. (2014). Resilience interventions for youth in diverse             populations.

Nabors, L. (2016). Medical and Mental Health During Childhood: Psychosocial Perspectives      and Positive Outcomes.

Veves, A., Giurini, J. M., & LoGerfo, F. W. (2012). The diabetic foot: Medical and surgical             management. New York, N.Y: Humana Press.

Nursing Informatics- Lewin’s change

 The integration of nursing informatics into the education programs involves a process of change that need to be planned and implemented. The Lewin’s change theory involves a guide for planned change comprising of three stages that include unfreezing, change movement and refreezing.  Unfreezing involves finding an approach that will enable people to let go of older counter-productive pattern.  The second phase involves a change in thoughts, feelings and behavior of peoples so that they become more liberated or productive than before.  The refreezing stage involves adopting the change so that it becomes habit or status quo, which prevents sliding back to older habits (Marquis  & Huston, 2009).

 Applied in nursing informatics education, freezing will involve coming up with a method or strategy of integrating nursing informatics to the nursing students’ curriculum. The change desired in this process is to have nursing education prepare the students for a health care environment that is increasingly becoming electronic (Watts, 2016). It involves realizing that there is need for change and informing the various stakeholders of this need. For instance, the curriculum developers realize that there is a need to move from a documentation system that is paper based to one that is electronic and such change is needed for the future professionals are waiting to join the health facilities or organizations (Choi & De Martinis, 2013). It should involve dialogue on how to impart the established informatics skills and competences into students through curriculum development. This also involves coming up with the right method of training the nursing practitioners and nursing students on how to depart from the older systems and embracing the technology and computer systems.

In the second stage, the people who are targeted for the change have to be convinced the new way of doing things is better than the old. From the entry level students programs to the graduation level, the educators and the students should be involved in various advantages of adopting information technology in the nursing health. Nursing informatics is essential in healthcare delivery that involves electronic systems (Hunter, McGonigle & Hebda, 2013). The curriculum developers should develop programs that enable the students to understand how the change in acquisition of knowledge on nursing informatics will improve the nursing research and nursing health care provision.  They students and educators will have analysed the present situation and hence they can support the introduction of the new learning curriculum and processes so as to accomplish the desired results and improvements.  Although a lot of cost and time is associated with this stage, it is very productive which will eventually yield tangible results. Technological illiteracy and hostility will be done away with once the relevant stakeholders are able to embrace change (Stephens-Lee & Lu, 2013).  Restraining forces act to decrease the change driving forces and can even restrict productivity. Consultation during the development of various competences and  in the  education program’s development will assist in reaching equilibrium since in so doing  total driving forces will equal the restraining forces. In the final stage of refreezing, it will be necessary to standardize education curriculum and programs and even the professional practices in relation to nursing informatics.  Without this process, it is very easy for backsliding to the older manner of doing things to take place. At this juncture, leadership, support and reward are important to maintain momentum until another change is required.

The Lewin’s theory strengths is that it provides a structure through which one can  focus the change plan and keep the  people targeted from resisting or making big mistakes. It is useful when spreading the message about intended change in a concrete and simple way.  However, the theory does not help in providing away in which the resulting emotional and behavioral reaction to the changes can be navigated. There is an assumption that change will occur in only one direction.

References

Marquis, B. L., & Huston, C. J. (2009). Leadership roles and management functions in nursing: Theory and application. Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.

 Hunter, K. M., McGonigle, D. M., & Hebda, T. L. (2013). TIGER-based measurement of nursing informatics competencies: The development and implementation of an online tool for self-assessment. Journal of Nursing Education and Practice, 3(12), 70.

 Stephens-Lee, C., & Lu, D. F. (2013). Preparing students for an electronic workplace. Online Journal of Nursing Informatics, 17(3).

 Choi, J., & De Martinis, J. E. (2013). Nursing informatics competencies: assessment of undergraduate and graduate nursing students. Journal of clinical nursing, 22(13-14), 1970-1976.

 Watts, C., (2016).Preparing Nursing Graduates for the Future: Adding Informatics Education To Entry Level Programs. Nursing Informatics Today

Etiology on Schizophrenia and the influence that drug use has on it

Introduction

Schizophrenia refers to a severe and chronic disorder that normally affect a person’s thinking, feeling and acting and it has known to be very disabling even though it is not common as compared to other mental illnesses.  It has been shown to affect about 7 to 8 people out of 1000 in their lifetime (Molloy et. al 2011).  People suffering from this disorder may be able to hear voices or even see things that are not there, believe other people can read their minds, control their thoughts and see them as plotting to harm them.  There is not surety on what causes schizophrenia but scientists believe that the disorder results from a combination of different factors ranging from genetics, environmental effects and brain chemistry. There certain factors that have been seen as increasing the risk of developing this condition and these relate to the aforementioned aspects in addition to certain triggers from the environment, health conditions such as complications in pregnancy and birth and even some self-destructive habits such as drug abuse. Drug use has also been largely related to the development of this condition especially given that they can trigger psychosis in those individuals who are prone to develop this mental condition.  Increasing evidence shows that the illicit use of drugs can be one of the environmental factors leading to schizophrenia. The disorder has various symptoms that are divided into cognitive, positive and negative ones.   The positive symptoms include hallucinations, thought and movement disorders and these include psychotic behaviors not observed in normal people.  The negative emotions concern disruption to normal behaviors and emotions.  Cognitive symptoms appear as subtle in some individuals but severe in other patients ethos may notice changes in their thinking aspects and memory.  There are various limitations on the studies carried out on the causes of schizophrenia and the various treatment methods for it which calls for more scientific research on these areas

Etiology on Schizophrenia

It has long been known by Scientist that schizophrenia runs into families at times and that it in general population , it can occur in less than 1 % , but those individuals with first degree relative of this illness such as brothers , sisters and even parents ,  it occurs in about 10 percent of them.  Even those people with second-degree relative such as grandparents, cousins and uncles suffering from the illness have a higher possibility of developing it than the general population (Cannon et. al 2000). In addition, there is a higher risk for a person who has an identical twin suffering from schizophrenia and there is about 40-65 % chance of such individuals to develop the disorder. Even though such genetic relations are quite strong, some individuals with schizophrenia do not have close relatives with this illness and conversely, individuals with family members having the condition are not affected by it themselves (Razali et. al 2013). The various studies carried out has led scientist s to conclude that various genes contribute to more risk of developing schizophrenia , but no one gene can be said to cause the illness by itself(Cannon et. al 2000). 

Research done recently has in fact shown that individuals with this disorder seem to have high levels of genetic mutations that are rare.  These researchers have also identified a certain gene (C4) that increases the schizophrenia risk and have even noted a theory that can explain how the gene may lead to this devastating mental disorder(Sekar et. al 2016).   The C4 gene seems to be involved in the elimination of the link between neurons through a process referred to as synaptic pruning which occurs naturally in human during the teen years. There is a possibility that improper pruning of the neural connections may results to schizophrenia development as speculated by the researchers.  This, they assert, would provide an explanation as to why the symptoms of this disorder appear mist of the times during teen years. Previous studies have shown that one of the significant genetic predictors of individual’s risk of the disorder was found in a DNA region that is found on chromosome 6(Sekar et. al 2016).  This new studies just focused on complement component 4 region – C4- that is known to relate to the immune system.  By use of samples from postmortem human brains, it was found that differences in various C4 gene copies in people and gene length could be used in the prediction of how the gene was active within the brain.  Attention was then turned towards genome database where information about the gene in thousands of people with the disease and others without the disease to estimate its activity.  It was found that there was a correlation between C4 activity and risk of the person developing schizophrenia (Sekar et. al 2016).  The higher the activity level the greater the risk.  This relation between C4 activity level and the risk of developing the illness was also found in mice experiments.  Previous studies have found that individuals with schizophrenia have less synapsis in specific areas of the brain than people not suffering from this condition (Sekar et. al 2016).  These new findings provide clearer evidence for a cellular and molecular mechanism of loss of synapses in the condition. 

In other research that involved neuroimaging studies , evidence have been provided that the abnormalities in the brain structure  can be seen  early in the development of schizophrenia before the antipsychotic treatment and that the person with a risk of developing psychosis indicate alterations of the brain as they transit to psychosis .Moreover, follow up information in the research indicated that cognitive deficits can be found as early as when the individuals are in first grade , and who are destined to develop the condition in future. It is worth noting that most of these people demonstrate sensory and motor abnormalities before they are exposed to antipsychotic medications (Van Os & McGuffin, 2003).

 Another issue that has been associated with the risk of developing the schizophrenia is the effect of traumatic injury of the brain.  The results of the study indicated that head trauma is likely to increase the risk of schizophrenia development.  People who have suffered from brain injury and hence the following traumas have a more chance – 1-6 times – of developing the condition in comparison to people who have not experienced such injuries (Malaspina et. al 2001).   The traumatic injury of the brain may be due to blow or jot to the head, or an injury whose impact penetrate through the skull. The symptoms for the injury can be light such concussion or even severe like amnesia.  This kind of trauma has been known to increase the risk of other psychiatric disorders such as anxiety disorders, personality change and disorder of substance use.  The research involved analyzing about nine research work done previously that comprised of participants who have a history of suffering from traumatic brain injury and other participants from the public with no history of this injury (Sachdev, Smith & Cathcart, 2001).  In this case , individuals who had close relatives having the schizophrenia and had suffered the traumatic brain injury, were 2.8 more likely to  develop the illness than the people who had to suffered the trauma (Molloy et. al 2011).  However, this risk didn’t increase for people with more severe injuries of the brain which may indicate that other factors like trauma location are more significant in regard to the risk of schizophrenia.  A trigger such as traumatic brain injury cans also results to genes that predispose people to this condition, although it can also unmask the underlying of this condition (McAllister et. al 2001).

 The above discussion provides evidence that schizophrenia is highly genetic and runs in families most of the times.   Apart from the influence of environmental factors to the genome, research has associated the condition to small differences in DNA at over 100 distinct locations on the genome, which human’s complete DNA set.  However, most of the locations can be found lying outside the actual genes and hence, their role in schizophrenia etiology remains unclear (Karayiorgou, Simon & Gogos, 2010).  Other study analysis on the genome for other diseases has shown similar results.  In various cases, the involved non-gene locations highlighted in the studies have become to be referred as regulatory regions whose purpose is to enhance or even repress activities of nearby genes on genome.  The cortex cells were used in the study since schizophrenia affects cortical development and the mapping of these cells showed that many of sites linked to the condition in previous studies come into contact with known genes as the brain is developing (Grozeva et. al 2010).  Those genes that are linked to the disease in the research various receptors in brain cells that become activated by neurotransmitter acetylene and this imply that differences in receptors’ functions can facilitate the development of schizophrenia.

Research has also shown that children who are born to mothers who experienced pregnancy and delivery complication have a higher risk of developing schizophrenia (Cannon et. al 2002). The various obstetrical complications that are linked to this condition include diabetes, bleeding retardation in fetal growth and prematurity, congenital malformations and rhesus incompatibility. In some cases, individuals who start developing schizophrenia before they reach 22 years of age were found to be likely to have a history of complicated cesarean delivery and even abnormal presentation during birth (Schmitt, Hasan , Gruber & Falkai, 2011).  Those children who are born through the Caesarean section may be more likely to suffer from this condition later in life and this research linked the child birth methods and later mental health.  This could be due to the fact that caesarean births were not exposed babies to surge hormones that are normally present during the vaginal birth (Jones et. al 1998).

Another complication during birth involves asphyxia, which relates to lack of oxygen during delivery which increases the risk of a person developing the condition in their adulthood. It relate to the link between neonatal and fetal central nervous system which is reported to cause schizophrenia. Other risk factors include those that require the baby to remain longer in the health facility such as delayed weight gain after birth and low weight at the time of birth (Clarke at.al 2011). In addition, pre-eclampsia which relates to being small for that gestational age and even short gestation also indicated mores risk for developing the condition even though they were not significant statistically. However, while the research adjusted for various likely confounding factors like other obstetric complications, social class and psychotic illness maternal history , the only remaining significant  factor that increased schizophrenia was  the asphyxia signs  during birth (Suvisaari, e. al 2013).  It has been argued that though the casual pathways may be difficult to understand especially given that obstetric complications are linked most of the times, the various disorders like pre-eclampsia can affect the supply of nutrients such as oxygen and glucose and thereby interfering with the development of the brain.    

On the other hand, a child with a normal development can experience somehow short-term disturbance during the birth due to hypoxia.  Due to hypoxic damage of the brain, there is a reduced quantity of cortex and hippocampus cells in the individual suffering from schizophrenia and with obstetric complications history (Jablensky et. al 2005).  The retardation of fetal growth lead to children who are born overweight and an association has been made between the schizophrenia cases patients and such complications.  The genetic factors come into play, where the retardation of fetal growth is related to genetic factors since those mothers with schizophrenia are more likely to bear children with low birth weight.  Almost all factors that affect the fetal development will in turn affect its health, hence understanding this information form a pathogenesis point of view may not be informative.   It could be said that the retardation of fetal growth is one of the earliest and major indication of schizophrenia neuro-developmental trajectory which comprises the various symptoms of the disease such as abnormal performance in relation to language, motor and cognitive ability from the time of birth and throughout the patients’ childhood (Curran et. al 2015).

Schizophrenia and use of drugs

 Research has shown that almost half of all individuals that have been diagnosed with schizophrenia are drug and alcohol users.  The rate is about four times rate of the larger population alcohol and drug use.  Despite such statistics many health practitioners and researchers in mental health do not relate the abuse of drugs to the inset of this condition. Part of the research evidence tends to show that there is a causative relationship between the schizophrenic symptoms and the consumption of specific drugs (McCREADIE, 2002).  For instance those people who are have genetic risk factors for this condition may  experience active cases of this illness especially due to use of hallucinogenic drugs.  For marijuana , the major ingredient that is also  active  - Tetrahydrocannabinol have a strong impact on the brain’s prefrontal hippocampus and cortex  which play a key role in the ability of  an individual to access memories and make sound judgment and these brain structures  are normally altered in case of schizophrenia (McCREADIE, 2002). When people who are mentally sound use marijuana, they experience similar disorientation or function alteration and thereby developing short-term versions of some symptoms that are linked to schizophrenia. In addition, people who are biologically predisposed towards this condition have a higher risk of developing it, especially the young ones. This increased risk relate to the individuals who have inherited the variant genes related to this disposition and who use the street drugs and alcohol especially when teenagers. At that tender age, the human brain is rapidly developing and it is specifically vulnerable. 

This shows a critical adolescence period that a person is quite vulnerable showing the impact of the drug as schizophrenia.  It is likely to bring about earlier development of the condition than it would have otherwise developed. Many individuals using the drugs experience years of normality before they succumb later to psychosis commonly associated with schizophrenia; and for men it happens earlier than in women.  This shows that the heavy abuse of hallucinogenic drugs can  therefore be a major trigger for schizophrenia but it seems that a person has be genetically predisposed towards the condition’s development for this to take place (Kahn et. al 2008).  In addition, evidence suggests that those people with the condition but are responding to provided treatment may experience an episode due to these drugs.  Substance can lead to reduced effectiveness of the treatment and in case of alcohol the impact can be very outstanding.  The high frequency of substance use occurring in people with schizophrenia is associated with more risk of injury and illness. Other than abnormal cognitive functioning when a person is intoxicated, the misuse of these drugs is known to result to poorer outcomes in the condition, higher frequency if patients’ admission and even emergency cases (Di Forti, 2014). This indicates that there the abuse of drugs for those people with schizophrenia acts as a great obstacle to providing effective treatment for these individuals.  There are also cases of the patients suffering from this condition using drugs for the purpose of self-medication. They use the drugs and alcohol to deal or alleviate various symptoms that are associated to schizophrenia; the drug abusers end up in a status where it is difficult to provide proper treatment (Di Forti, 2014).  

Conclusion

Schizophrenia is caused by a myriad of factors which have been related to genetic or environmental factors.  The genetic factor factors involve the inherited predisposition genes for some of the individuals who have first degree relative with a history of this condition.  Research has also shown that the condition also develops in individuals who do not have any close family member with a history of schizophrenia which complicates the research on finding the real cause of the disease. Recent research has suggested that a particular gene – C₄- is responsible for the development of this condition. The other factors that have been shown to lead to this condition includes complications during pregnancy and delivery; and traumatic head injury that bring about other behavioral , psychotic and even drug use disorders. The use of drug has been shown to lead to earlier schizophrenia development for those people who are pre-disposed and reduces the effusiveness of treatment for this condition.

Strength and weaknesses

The various researches that have been done on etiology of Schizophrenia and effect of drug use on it have various limitations which include the biases in the selection of various controls and lack of enough sample participants in the studies. In addition, there is lack of large replication of findings especially those relating to genes relating to this condition. In addition, the studies do not fully show how drug use causes schizophrenia .There is need for further research especially on whther drug use causes this condtion or it is just a risk factor. However, the implications of this research are that it helps to link the various causes of schizophrenia, the effect of drug abuse as a causation aspect and its effect on treatment. No single factor that should be overlooked.

References

Sekar, A., Bialas, A. R., de Rivera, H., Davis, A., Hammond, T. R., Kamitaki, N., ... & Genovese, G. (2016). Schizophrenia risk from complex variation of complement component 4. Nature, 530(7589), 177-183.

Cannon, T. D., Rosso, I. M., Hollister, J. M., Bearden, C. E., Sanchez, L. E., & Hadley, T. (2000). A prospective cohort study of genetic and perinatal influences in the etiology of schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 26(2), 351-366.

Van Os, J., & McGuffin, P. (2003). Can the social environment cause schizophrenia?. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 182(4), 291-292.

Razali, S. M., Abidin, Z. Z., Othman, Z., & Yassin, M. A. M. (2013). Screening of genetic risk among relatives and the general public: exploring the spectrum of the psychosis prodrome. Int Med J, 20, 747-51.

Malaspina, D., Goetz, R. R., Friedman, J. H., Kaufmann, C. A., Faraone, S. V., Tsuang, M., ... & Blehar, M. C. (2001). Traumatic brain injury and schizophrenia in members of schizophrenia and bipolar disorder pedigrees. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158(3), 440-446.

Sachdev, P., Smith, J. S., & Cathcart, S. (2001). Schizophrenia-like psychosis following traumatic brain injury: a chart-based descriptive and case–control study. Psychological medicine, 31(02), 231-239.

Molloy, C., Conroy, R. M., Cotter, D. R., & Cannon, M. (2011). Is traumatic brain injury a risk factor for schizophrenia? A meta-analysis of case-controlled population-based studies. Schizophrenia bulletin, 37(6), 1104-1110.

McAllister, T. W., Sparling, M. B., Flashman, L. A., Guerin, S. J., Mamourian, A. C., & Saykin, A. J. (2001). Differential working memory load effects after mild traumatic brain injury. Neuroimage, 14(5), 1004-1012.

Karayiorgou, M., Simon, T. J., & Gogos, J. A. (2010). 22q11. 2 microdeletions: linking DNA structural variation to brain dysfunction and schizophrenia. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 11(6), 402-416.

Grozeva, D., Kirov, G., Ivanov, D., Jones, I. R., Jones, L., Green, E. K., ... & McGuffin, P. (2010). Rare copy number variants: a point of rarity in genetic risk for bipolar disorder and schizophrenia. Archives of general psychiatry, 67(4), 318-327.

Cannon, M., Jones, P. B., & Murray, R. M. (2002). Obstetric complications and schizophrenia: historical and meta-analytic review. American Journal of Psychiatry, 159(7), 1080-1092.

Schmitt, A., Hasan, A., Gruber, O., & Falkai, P. (2011). Schizophrenia as a disorder of disconnectivity. European archives of psychiatry and clinical neuroscience, 261(2), 150.

Clarke, M. C., Tanskanen, A., Huttunen, M., Leon, D. A., Murray, R. M., Jones, P. B., & Cannon, M. (2011). Increased risk of schizophrenia from additive interaction between infant motor developmental delay and obstetric complications: evidence from a population-based longitudinal study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 168(12), 1295-1302.

Curran, E. A., O'neill, S. M., Cryan, J. F., Kenny, L. C., Dinan, T. G., Khashan, A. S., & Kearney, P. M. (2015). Research review: birth by caesarean section and development of autism spectrum disorder and attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a systematic review and meta‐analysis. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 56(5), 500-508.

Suvisaari, J. M., Taxell-Lassas, V., Pankakoski, M., Haukka, J. K., Lönnqvist, J. K., & Häkkinen, L. T. (2013). Obstetric complications as risk factors for schizophrenia spectrum psychoses in offspring of mothers with psychotic disorder. Schizophrenia bulletin, 39(5), 1056-1066.

Jablensky, A. V., Morgan, V., Zubrick, S. R., Bower, C., & Yellachich, L. A. (2005). Pregnancy, delivery, and neonatal complications in a population cohort of women with schizophrenia and major affective disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry, 162(1), 79-91.

Jones, P. B., Rantakallio, P., Hartikainen, A. L., Isohanni, M., & Sipila, P. (1998). Schizophrenia as a long-term outcome of pregnancy, delivery, and perinatal complications: a 28-year follow-up of the 1966 north Finland general population birth cohort. American Journal of Psychiatry, 155(3), 355-364.

McCREADIE, R. G. (2002). Use of drugs, alcohol and tobacco by people with schizophrenia: case—control study. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 181(4), 321-325.

Kahn, R. S., Fleischhacker, W. W., Boter, H., Davidson, M., Vergouwe, Y., Keet, I. P., & Hummer, M. (2008). Effectiveness of antipsychotic drugs in first-episode schizophrenia and schizophreniform disorder: an open randomised clinical trial. The Lancet, 371(9618), 1085-1097.

Di Forti, M., Sallis, H., Allegri, F., Trotta, A., Ferraro, L., Stilo, S. A., & Dazzan, P. (2014). Daily use, especially of high-potency cannabis, drives the earlier onset of psychosis in cannabis users. Schizophrenia bulletin, 40(6), 1509-1517.

Healthcare Access in South Africa

South Africa has a population of 54 million people, with 200,000 health workers. The doctor patient ratio in the country therefore is one doctor to 270 people. Hospitals in the country are usually flocked with very many people, even though they cannot be able to cater for such a huge population. AitaHealth has therefore come up with an app named one app, which aims at providing healthcare without any problems at all in the country (Earl, n.p). The organization therefore offers training to health workers in the community, who then provide home treatment and counselling, which mainly focuses on precautionary care. The healthcare workers can therefore be able to visit their clients, either at home, at their workplace or at school. Moreover, the organization has collaborated with Vodafone, a telecommunication company, which helps in passing information concerning infections from AitaHealth to the government of South Africa. The application has therefore helped in reducing the issues of tuberculosis, where victims have been able to ask for assistance through the use of the app.

According to my point of view, I strongly believe that this app is going to help increase medical access to different people in the country (Earl, n.p). Moreover, it will also help in reducing the time wasted while queueing at the hospital in order to be assisted. More lives are therefore going to be saved, and more disease will also be treated hence making South Africa to be a healthier nation.

The government should work with AitaHealth, through providing the organization with financial support. This will consequently see the country moving forward, as it will be able to deal with the issue of poor healthcare services (Earl, n.p). Moreover, the government should also encourage its citizens to use the app instead of going to hospital, in order to reduce overpopulation in the hospitals. The society should also appreciate the services being offered by the organization, and thus people should be able to volunteer in giving support to the organization. This will consequently help in improving healthcare services in the country.

Work Cited

Earl Nurse. The App making Healthcare Accessible in South Africa. Cnn.com. 2017. Retrieved from: http://edition.cnn.com/2017/05/02/africa/alf-aitahealth-app-healthcare/index.html

Infectious diseases

HIV/AIDS and STD Updates. (2010). AIDS Patient Care & STDs, 24(3), 201-202. doi:10.1089/apc.2010.9908

            According to HIV/AIDS and STD information, there is tension of HIV amid men who have sex with women. This means that HIV RNA depicts a form determining plasma that spreads. By reviewing the viral chain removed from blood and semen of HIV-conveying associates, the authors anticipated the dates of source and the foundation of altering HIV. HIV-infected persons are at a higher risk of AIDS-defining or virus related diseases.  By comparing the genetic features, the authors reviewed males who had sexually conveyed illnesses.

            The authors have proofed the infectious disease is determined by HIV ribonucleic acid that is conveyed on sex.  The stressed on the prevention policies developed and that focuses on HIV in the influential plasma.  The prevention strategies included vaccines, vaginal microbicides and the antiviral drugs.  They concluded that HIV ribonucleic acid in the influential plasma is the cause behind the sexual spread of the disease from males to females.

Yoshikazu, I., Takeshi, K., Gretchen, P., Futoshi, H., Hideaki, M., & Jiro, F. (2016). Comparative epidemiology of influenza A and B viral infection in a subtropical region: a 7-year surveillance in Okinawa, Japan. BMC Infectious Diseases, 161-8. doi: 10.1186/s12879-016-1978-0

According to the authors, the outbreak of the virus B illness and their connection with the average temperature environment are not implicit. The review of the infectious disease is important for the clarification of the transmission ways in both the moderate and hot areas.  Using review done for almost 7 years in the subtropical Japanese region, the article aims to distinguish the outbreak outlines of cold B disease and its connection with common warmth and moderate damp.  The global review of the disease concluded that the influenza signs incorporated the time allotment of the pretentious persons.  To review the connection between the disease and the restricted weather circumstances, common warmth and moderate moisture during the survey time shows how the disease spread during the weather conditions. As a result, while cold A sustained an elevated figure of disease from December to March, the spread of cold B disease increased from March to January.

            This infectious disease mainly affects the school-aged children.  The authors claim that relative moisture increases the level of cold B disease.  There is a further need for review on the subtropical regions to verify the outcomes and increase the comprehension of the researchers regarding the distribution of cold B.

Murugaiah, C. (2011). The burden of cholera. Critical Reviews In Microbiology, 37(4), 337-348. doi:10.3109/1040841X.2011.603288

            According to the author, Cholera is a sensitive dysentery illness that WHO suspects to be an extremely infectious risk.  An Italian doctor said that the disease gains a status and discovered the disease as the most dreadful outbreak diarrheal sickness met in the emergent nations.  According to the author, despite the WHO taking efforts to reduce the spread rates, cholera widespread exist in assured areas.  The features that donate to the communication and spread of the infectious disease in cholera-prone areas remain mysterious. Developed Increase in awareness and knowledge of the disease helps the residents of the prone area to receive benefits.  This article by Murugaiah gives imminent into the occurrence of the disease, epidemiology, transmission of the disease and policies used to control cholera.

            As the disease spreads globally, its control is important in achieving the developmental goals.  Developing plans for increasing distribution review in reviewing the regions at maximum danger of the disease and the use of control programs in the areas are essential ways that controls the disease.  The knowledge of the disease increase new strategic ways for fighting the disease against humankind.

Araujo Navas, A. L., Hamm, N. S., Soares Magalhães, R. J., & Stein, A. (2016). Mapping Soil Transmitted Helminthes and Schistosomiasis under Uncertainty: A Systematic Review and Critical Appraisal of Evidence. Plos Neglected Tropical Diseases, 10(12), 1-28. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0005208

            Spatial modeling of Soil Transmitted Helminthes and schistosomiasis spread is currently common.  Spatial distribution review helps enlighten the approach based on the figure of citizens at danger as well as the ecological regions that need a huge soil drug administration. According to the authors, soil-transmitted helminth infections have increased.  The article aims in spotting the liabilities and propose a framework for evaluation and study.  It aims in identifying the gaps in awareness in relation to how existing studies addresses the spatial modeling of helminth infections.  Therefore, the authors conclude that giving more attention to mapping and interpretation of uncertainty based on modeling helps.

            To recognize communities at risk, indirect meters of morbidity such as occurrence of infection and intensity of the infection reviews through surveying at risk populations.  Risk prone communities can be classified into disease prevalence classes; low, moderate and high classes. An approach that identifies the communities at risk is the study of the role of the environment to feature potential habitation of parasites and transitional hosts and the awareness of the environmental science and epidemiology of infections.      

Hector, R. F., & Laniado-Laborin, R. (2005). Coccidioidomycosis-- A Fungal Disease of the Americas. Plos Medicine, 2(1), 15-18. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0020002

A year is gone since Coccidioidomycosis proofed as a critical disease.  The disease persists being a mystery to several and it goes unidentified even in common regions. Control of the illness is a problem and thus there is a need of innovated curative potions.   This infectious disease is common in the Western.  Its fungus develops in mycelia stages in the soil within an organically displayed area in America.  The areas prone to the disease are the semiarid areas in Mexico.  According to the authors, when the soil gets dry and limits the nutrients, the yeast generates asexually by producing threadlike filaments into small environmental resistance spores produced by the cleavage of preexisting fungal hyphae.

            They suspends in air by either wind or human activities.  In addition, the breathing in of the dust-borne fungal spore leads to the infection of the disease in both humans and animals.  After breathing in, the fungus changes to a certain life cycle of changing spheres and determinant offspring, that includes the parasitic phase of dimorphic fungus. The authors claim that the disease is not contagious but the main exposure of the infected dirt is the central danger for the illness infection.

Takahashi-Omoe, H., & Omoe, K. (2012). Social Environment and Control Status of Companion Animal-Borne Zoonoses in Japan. Animals (2076-2615), 2(1), 38-54. doi:10.3390/ani2010038

            According to the author, the hazard of friendly animal-borne infections is increasing in Japan with a developing digit of growing varieties of natural world.  In reaction to this, the government of Japan has developed policies for the home and boundary management of the disease.  It is not possible to decide if these policies have prohibited the communication of the disease.  This is because there have been deficiency of direct proof connecting the animal engagement in the disease and lack of awareness on the current rules in disease outbreak.

            Omoe stresses that the adjustments of the communal and ecological features are the main causes of rise in the number of beast transported to Japan.  These factors connected with the high population increase in Japan and the little registration of dogs has amplified the danger of infection of beast to person disease.  For the control of the outbreak, the Japanese government has developed ways such as reviewing and reporting the outbreak of the disease to the Rabies Control Law.  These policies have been effective in preventing the rabies transmission. 

Zoleko Manego, R., Mombo-Ngoma, G., Witte, M., Held, J., Gmeiner, M., Gebru, T., & ... Manego, R. Z. (2017). Demography, maternal health and the epidemiology of malaria and other major infectious diseases in the rural department Tsamba-Magotsi, Ngounie Province, in central African Gabon. BMC Public Health, 17(1), 1-7. doi:10.1186/s12889-017-4045-x

            According to the authors, the Sub-Saharan area in Africa is having increased disease transition from prevalence infectious disease to non-transmittable life-related status.  The level of the transmission of the disease is unequal between the rural and urban populations.  The authors conducted their research in local hospitals where the parasitic infection affects the pregnant women causing malaria. 

            The authors claim that malaria is perennial with a little rate in its transmission throughout the arid periods and the maximum spread throughout the wet periods. The spread of the infectious disease bothers the African citizens by putting a burden to the infectious disease as malaria has increased in the tropical areas.  They suggested that the local populations given clinical research projects considering malaria and other diseases, and this would help develop the economic contribution to the people. 

Štaudová, B., Strouhal, M., Zobaníková, M., Čejková, D., Fulton, L. L., Chen, L., & ... Šmajs, D. (2014). Whole Genome Sequence of the Treponema pallidum subs. endemic Strain Bosnia A: The Genome Is Related to Yaws Treponemes but Contains Few Loci Similar to Syphilis Treponemes. Plos Neglected Tropical Diseases, 8(11), 1-13. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0003261

            The authors show that virus genes and breed that force human microorganisms and animal rooting illnesses are different according to clinical reviews.  The transmission of STDs increases disease featured by humans.  The article explains the diagnosis of STDs because there is complete medical resemblance amid the signs of syphilis and the widespread epidemiology infection that acts a main function in defining the analysis.  Diagnosis of Widespread syphilis is all over Europe though not yet proved if the syphilis bacterium causes the infection. Clinical signs of syphilis and bejel are and the infection approach is significant to review the two diseases.  In contrast, syphilis and TEN infections spread directly through contaminated tools rather than through sexual contact. 

            The authors conclude that the DNA set of TEN Bosnia A has several chains that are exclusive to TPA damages.  These chains show the remains of the recombination events during the development of bacterium TEN. 

Eliminate Yellow fever Epidemics (EYE): a global strategy, 2017-2026. (2017). Weekly Epidemiological Record, 92(16), 193-204.   

            According to the author, Yellow fever is a widespread disease of humans that mosquito and other similar species transmit.  The disease occurs mostly in the African hot areas. Vaccinations prevent yellow fever, as a single dose vaccine is enough for a future protection.  The article stresses that vaccination has been the main prevention for the disease and continues to be the focus of the control programs.  While the widespread of Yellow fever in ancient times has never developed, areas with tropical climate would give effective conditions for the species causing the disease. Approached within the Yellow fever disease differentiate in kind and the spread or on the countries probability of experience with the disease and the connected risks. 

            The author concludes that in order to recognize the risk prone areas of the disease, there are developed approaches categorized according to the countries’ experiencing Yellow fever outbreaks without any control.   Based on the article, EYE policy controls the global action and helps the countries at risk prevent the outbreak and manage the occurring ones.  This diminishes the damages and has a quick response approach. 

Sumner, T., Orton, R. J., Green, D. M., Kao, R. R., & Gubbins, S. (2017). Quantifying the roles of host movement and vector dispersal in the transmission of vector-borne diseases of livestock. PLoS Computational Biology, 13(4), 1-22. doi:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1005470

            According to the authors, the role of the mass movement in the outbreak of vector-borne disease of animals increases. The article gives an approach that allows us differentiate and enumerate the roles of the bacterium increase and livestock movement and their transmission in the farms.  This approach concludes that In Great Britain infections increase the disease and has currently developed in northern Europe. The difference between the causes of the disease is because of higher bacteria competence and shorter time of SBV virus compared with BTV.  The authors say that these two viruses show that the secondary infections in any infected farm are greater than one for the organism dispersal. The article shows that the impact of controlling the animal movements due to the spread of the viruses depend on the hypothesis made on the distance in which the organism spread appears. 

References

Araujo Navas, A. L., Hamm, N. S., Soares Magalhães, R. J., & Stein, A. (2016). Mapping Soil Transmitted Helminthes and Schistosomiasis under Uncertainty: A Systematic Review and Critical Appraisal of Evidence. Plos Neglected Tropical Diseases, 10(12), 1-28. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0005208

Eliminate Yellow fever Epidemics (EYE): a global strategy, 2017-2026. (2017). Weekly Epidemiological Record, 92(16), 193-204.  

Hector, R. F., & Laniado-Laborin, R. (2005). Coccidioidomycosis-- A Fungal Disease of the Americas. Plos Medicine, 2(1), 15-18. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0020002

HIV/AIDS and STD Updates. (2010). AIDS Patient Care & STDs, 24(3), 201-202. doi:10.1089/apc.2010.9908

Murugaiah, C. (2011). The burden of cholera. Critical Reviews In Microbiology, 37(4), 337-348. doi:10.3109/1040841X.2011.603288

Štaudová, B., Strouhal, M., Zobaníková, M., Čejková, D., Fulton, L. L., Chen, L., & ... Šmajs, D. (2014). Whole Genome Sequence of the Treponema pallidum subs. endemic Strain Bosnia A: The Genome Is Related to Yaws Treponemes but Contains Few Loci Similar to Syphilis Treponemes. Plos Neglected Tropical Diseases, 8(11), 1-13. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0003261

Sumner, T., Orton, R. J., Green, D. M., Kao, R. R., & Gubbins, S. (2017). Quantifying the roles of host movement and vector dispersal in the transmission of vector-borne diseases of livestock. PLoS Computational Biology, 13(4), 1-22. doi:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1005470

Takahashi-Omoe, H., & Omoe, K. (2012). Social Environment and Control Status of Companion Animal-Borne Zoonoses in Japan. Animals (2076-2615), 2(1), 38-54. doi:10.3390/ani2010038

Yoshikazu, I., Takeshi, K., Gretchen, P., Futoshi, H., Hideaki, M., & Jiro, F. (2016). Comparative epidemiology of influenza A and B viral infection in a subtropical region: a 7-year surveillance in Okinawa, Japan. BMC Infectious Diseases, 161-8. doi: 10.1186/s12879-016-1978-0

Zoleko Manego, R., Mombo-Ngoma, G., Witte, M., Held, J., Gmeiner, M., Gebru, T., & ... Manego, R. Z. (2017). Demography, maternal health and the epidemiology of malaria and other major infectious diseases in the rural department Tsamba-Magotsi, Ngounie Province, in central African Gabon. BMC Public Health, 17(1), 1-7. doi:10.1186/s12889-017-4045-x