Annotated Bibliography

Wong, E. (2011). Taoism: An essential guide. Boston: Shambhala.

In ancient China, Shamanism developed a sedentary society in 20^th century. During this period, the kings of Chou dynasty employed Shamans to conduct certain functions such as inviting the spirits, interpreting dreams, rainmaking, reading omens and healing. The books asserts that Shamans in Chou dynasty  failed to use their ability in carrying  out their duties, because they lacked the  power of Yu or in other words the  power of animal spirit. The decline of shamanism in Chou dynasty made the   shamanism to be practiced in areas which were occupied by Ch’U, Wu and Yueh.

Lindgren A. Linda (2010) Shamanism and Chinese Goddesses  ~Xi wangmu and Nugua~

The author asserts that ancient China practiced ecstatic religion which involved shamanic character in Neolithic period.  Shamanist practices played a significant role in Chinese religion in shaping shamanistic beliefs and culture. The article asserts that Wu was the Chinese Shaman and the Chinese culture interpreted the meaning of Wu differently.  Some believed that Wu character was visible on a scapula bone in 1500 BC and other believed that the character was in Shandong.  In Chinese history, Wu symbolized males and female but later Ching concluded that Wu was a female shaman.

Gilles Boileau (2002). Wu and Shaman

The article asserts that there has been confrontation between Shamanism and Chinese religion. The confrontation has rooted from the idea that that Shang king acted as Wu in religious activities. During the dawn of civilization, Shung king followed the art practices of Wu in his religious activities. In oracular inscriptions, Shang king practiced the Wu activities such as dances, rainmaking, invocation and healing. Despite the fact that Shang king followed the Wu activities,  the term was also seen in character wang. This created a separate entitity but it was concluded that the king was Shang as he followed the Wu’s activities. The article plays a significant role of comparing the religious activities of the two characters.

Klein F. Cecelia, Guzman Eulogio, Mandell C. Elisa & Mazzi-Stanfield Maya (2002). The Role of Shamanism in Mesoamerican Art. A Reassessment.

 The article is very import rant as it provides credible information regarding the Western art and its application in Mesoamerican Art.  Klein et al (2002) asserts that for many years, Mesoamericanists have followed the shamanism activities in their artwork. Many scholars in their artworks have focused on socioscientific literature from ethnographic sources. Mesoamericans art introduced the concepts of shamanism in 1960s.  The artwork has been reflected on spiritual and it has been focusing on issues based on ahistorical and apolitical.

Hutton, R. (2007). Shamans: Siberian spirituality and the Western imagination. London: Hambledon Continuum.

 From 1970s, many scholars have presented the word ‘shamanism’ in their anthropology and religious work. Given that shamanism originated from Siberia, many scholars apply beliefs and activities which are interconnected with activities in Siberia.  However, there a confrontation in defining the term as some scholars defines it as spiritual activities from state of consciousness. Second, it is a practice where practitioners interact with the spirit of world. Third, many scholars applies this definition in their work by trying to assert that there is no relationship between shaman and with doctors or prophets.They belief that shaman has power over other spirits. Finally, some people belief that shamanism means practical convenience.

Stuckard Von Kocku (2002). Reenchjanting Nature: Modern Western Shamanims and Nineteenth-Century Thought

In 1920^th century, North America and Europe developed neoshamanism through integrating in anthropology, science and New Age. Neoshamanim concept has introduced the resacralization of the world.  There a notable transition of modernity following that there a division between sacred and material realms. Nonindustrial societies are being symbolized by ‘sacramental view of reality. Scholars’ asserts that modernity is made up by self-referential reflexivity which means culture is newly ordered and thing are changed from primitive image to rational cognition.

Meadows, K., & Meadows, K. (2004). Shamanic spirit: A practical guide to personal fulfillment. Rochester, Vt: Bear & Co.

In modernity, there is a renewal on shamanism where there eternal principles which are connected human with nature.  Shamanism explains how people in modern world will gain new perceptions which will change the way of living by improving creativity, emotions and reinforce the inner powers. In modernity, Shamanics stands for ancient wisdom which was used by benevolent shamans through oral tradition and mysteries. Thus, the mysteries are hidden truths which are now revealed in modernity so that whoever complies with the truth will gain harmony.

 

 

Chinese Shamanic Society

Outline

Introduction

Background information

1. In 20^th century, the ancient China developed the Shamanism and shamans were employed to conduct various functions such as healing, rainmaking, divination and interpreting dream
2. 2. Chinese shamanism was also known as Wuism or the religious traditions which were related with Neolithic cultures.
3. 3. Chinese shamanism introduced the ritual traditions and masters who were involved in Chinese rituals were known as Wu.
4. 4. In modern world, many scholars are following the shamanism practices in their work art. They are connecting the practices with nature in creating new ways of living.
5. 5. In Chinese Shamanic society, Shang king was viewed by outsiders as artist and wang viewed himself as a shaman. 
6. 6. The two had different practices since Shang king in conducting religious practices followed Wu’s activities.

Thesis; In Chinese shamanism society, Wu were used as the spirit mediums in shamanism activities where Shang kings and wang were Wu-shamans though their religious practices differed and their difference practice marked the history of shamanism in modern world.

 

 

Body

Topic Sentences

-Chinese shamanism practices led to the development of Taoism in Han dynasty.

1. Toaism was the ancient Chinese philosophy based on religious piety.
2. Taoism marked the history of Classical period.

3 Taoism (Tao-te ching) created a division between Taoism teaching and Confucius teachings.

 

-During the spring and autumn period, Taoism was transformed into an organized religion known as Taoism religion in the golden age.

1. Golden age was the period of chaos where three kingdoms were formed.
2. 2. There was rise of Mystical Taoism
3. 3. There wasan establishment of Alchemical Taoism
4. Taoism, Buddhism and Confucianism combined.

 

- Shamanism and Chinese religion

1. 1. In oracular inscriptions, Shang king as Wu
2. 2. In oracular inscription, Wu was named as Wang

 

-Shang king and Wush inChinese shamanism religion

 

1. The Chinese Shaman
2. Different meaning of Wu
3. 3. China divination

 

 

-The role of Western in shaping shamanism

1. 1. Shamanism in MesoAmerican Art
2. 2. Implication of Siberian spirituality in religious work
3. 3. Implication of 19^th century thought in modern shamanism
4. 4. Implication of shamanic spirit in creating new ways of living

 

 

-Closing statement

Chinese shamanism and Wu masters play a significant role in modern Chinese culture.

-Restate thesis

Chinese shamans followed the Wu activities and modern religious practices follow the role shaman as artist in their artwork and religious practices.

 

 

References

 

Wong, E. (2011). Taoism: An essential guide. Boston: Shambhala.

Lindgren A. Linda (2010) Shamanism and Chinese Goddesses  ~Xi wangmu and Nugua~

Gilles Boileau (2002). Wu and Shaman

Klein F. Cecelia, Guzman Eulogio, Mandell C. Elisa & Mazzi-Stanfield Maya (2002). The Role of Shamanism in Mesoamerican Art. A Reassessment.

Hutton, R. (2007). Shamans: Siberian spirituality and the Western imagination. London: Hambledon Continuum.

Stuckard Von Kocku (2002). Reenchjanting Nature: Modern Western Shamanims and Nineteenth-Century Thought

Meadows, K., & Meadows, K. (2004). Shamanic spirit: A practical guide to personal fulfillment. Rochester, Vt: Bear & Co.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Chinese Shamanic Society

Introduction

In ancient China, many years ago, Chinese did not have their national or religious identity.  In 20^th century, Chiou dynasty developed shamans who conducted certain functions. Their major tasks were inviting the spirit and providing them with permanent places where they could dwell.  Shamans also played the role of interpreting dreams as a way of revealing the message which the spirit had for the realm. Shamans were also creating the healing ceremonies where they could remove out the malevolent spirits and restore the life. However the history of Chou dynasty period concluded that shamans failed to fulfill their roles since they did have the sacred powers of Yu.  Given that shamans in Chou dynasty was declined, shamanism religion activities were practiced by Ch’u, Wu and Yueh.  In Chinese shamanism, shamans were referred to as Wu- which means a male mediator during Shang dynasty and later   a female shaman was introduced in Zhou dynasty.  The religions from the two dynasties (Shang and Zhou) performed different religious activities in that Shang believed in ancestors, Wu practices and oracle bones while Zhou opposed the ancestors.  Chinese religion was developed from Shang and Zhou period and shamans in the two periods had different religious beliefs.  In Chinese shamanism society, Wu were used as the spirit mediums in shamanism activities where Shang kings and Wang were Wu-shamans though their religious practices differed and their difference practice marked the history of shamanism in modern world.

 Shamanism became popular in ancient China through the development of Taoism in Han dynasty-which was the Chinese philosophy of religion. Taoist magicians’ practices were based on removing out malevolent spirits and destructive forces. A thousand years after the development of Taoist, Chinese tribes achieved the national identity and families were given lands (Wong, 2011).  During this period, Yu the Great and other kings were participating in spring and autumn ceremonies while shamanism was practiced by professionals. There was effectiveness in the feudal kingdoms and the emperor was strong.  In 770 BCE, there was sociopolitical turmoil in Chou Empire as a result of powerful feudal kingdoms of Chou (Wong, 2011).  The classical period occurred during the spring and autumn period when the feudal states were more powerful and created the Five Warlords of this period.  The feudal lords expanded the territories and used their military strength in building other powerful states.  The classical period was developed during the Tao-te ching.  At this period, Tao-te ching taught that all things in the universal derive its power from Tao.  Note that the Tao teachings differ with shaman’s animistic views as Tao beliefs on benevolent power (Wong, 2011).

             After the warring period, Taoism developed an organized religion during the golden age and sacred ceremonies were initiated.  Ch’in dynasty eliminated the mercenary statesmen and political adverse and this led to unification in China. The Han emperors created a centralized government to prevent mercenary statesmen in advising feudal lords (Wong, 2011).  Han dynasties created a social class and trained political advisers in art of healing and divination. The social class-fang-shih- played different roles based on healing and divination and others were trained on longevity and immortality. Taoism was also transformed into an organized religion in order to create the hierarchy of spirits as well as the honoring practices. The transformation of philosophy to an organized religion led to the Mystical Taoism in (300-600 CE (Wong, 2011).  Mystical Taoism developed the beliefs that the cosmic powers live in human body.  The mystical had both mysticism and shamanism concepts were rooted from Chin dynasty.  The Shang-ch’ing Taoism (Mystical) taught that the internal universe which is the human body is guarded by spirits and deities and the two lives in the body. Thus, the guardians should be maintained so that they can sustain life.  In addition, the teachings of Mystical Taoism taught that the external universe is the celestial bodies and the starts, sun and moon strengths the immortal fetus as well as the body guardians (Wong, 2011).

  In Chinese shamanism society, Wu was the shaman but the term was defined differently. First, Wu character was found on scapula bone in 1500 BC. Other argues that Wu character was found in Eastern Zhou period (Gilles, 2002).In Chinese history, Wu is defined as male and female from Shang and Zhou periods.  The traditional culture of Chinese was created from divination which is found in form of Scapulimancy. The culture used oracle bones for divination which was developed during the Shang period.  Bones of sacrificed animals were used in divination as it was believed that the animal spirit interacted with other spirits. During Neolithic period, Chinese worshiped the Ancestors as they believed that the ancestors’ spirit dominated life (Gilles, 2002). They assert that the art of Wu developed the Shang religion and through the Oracle bone, Wu designed an image of a person who performed ritual activities. Dancing and divination from Wu arts represented the shamanism practices. The practices between Shang King and Zhou differed in that Shang king followed the Wu’s religious practices in performing the duties (Lindgren, 2010).  In addition, Shang king demonstrated his political power in religious activities.  He worshiped Di, royal ancestors and other deities.  It is important to note in Shang religion, shamans were not artists but they acted as artist in performing religious function such as divination.  They acted as Wu and followed the Wushu arts and in Shang divination, Wu art played a significant role in healing and making rain (Gilles, 2002).

 

The Zhou dynasty rejected the Shang religion and believed on ancestors and nature deities.  Zhou religion believed in Tian whom they referred to as the impersonal deity.  In other words, Tian acted as the ancestral spirit and in Zhou practices, shamanism practices declined and female shamans was less usual (Lindgren, 2010). Unlike in Shang religion where Wu was seen as an art and religion followed the art in practicing, Zhou viewed Wu as a person who came from untamed nature and was involved in unfortunate events.  Wu was connected with impurity and had the malevolent power in conducting religious activities.  In comparing the religious acts between Wu (shaman as artist) and Zhou (artist as a shaman), the former during the Zhou period   was not recognized and it was believed that the female shaman did not reach the spirit through religious acts (Lindgren, 2010). Chinese believed that animal were to be involved in shamanistic rituals and secular duties increased during this period. In ancient China, humans and spirits existed but they could not come into contact. Wu and Xi were single-minded and they could understand the spirit.  Zhu acted as invocators as they could find the spirit during the ceremonies, understand the principle of ancestors, enforce respect and control trust (Lindgren, 2010).  This shows that Wu and Zhou had different roles as one could understand the upper world and the other could understand the lower world.

From traditional to modern times, divination has been viewed as an important feature. Scapulimancy   and oracle bones were used and the phenomena are still applied in North America and the central parts of Asia (Lindgren, 2010).  During the Shang period, the art of divination and writing were developed and it is believed that bones of sacred animals were used in the divination ceremony.  In comparing Shang and Zhou dynasty, there is difference in their religious activities following that during Shang dynasty, Shang king valued the divination and the act marked the Chinese shamanist history (Lindgren, 2010).  In the divination ceremony, shaman played the role of presenting bones which was used for writing the questions which Shang king could ask.  In Zhou and Shang  period, religion were quite different following that  Shang believed in spirits, good and evil while Zhou  was more transcendental.  Shang religion concentrated on ancestral rituals but Zhou concentrated on poetry and writing. The difference changed the people’s mind and religion was centered on both nature and humanism.  Mankind, ancestors and heave as well as determined the way of life (Lindgren, 2010).

Shamanism activities have played a great role in Mesoamerican Art given that in the past decade, Mesoamericanists have been using shamanism concepts in their artworks (Klein et al, 2002).  Many scholars such as anthropologists, art historians and others have been using the social scientific literature in dealing with complex questions and issues related with religion and politics.  Shamanism and art have brought an importance contribution in helping the Mesoamerican artworks focus on ‘the spiritual’.  Since 1960s, during the methodological crisis, the pre-Columbian art was taught in Yale and Columbia University which concentrated on diffusionism (Klein et al, 2002).  The latter played a big role in this period   in focusing on ancient transpacific maritime, Asian and Latin America resemblance.  Since 19^th century, U.S anthropologists have used the diffusionism in understanding the evolution of human history.  They have also used the shamanism activity in understanding ‘the spiritual’ which has contributed to the idea of ahistorical and apolitical.  The Shamanism activities have shaped the humanistic anthropology and through studying art, many scholars have characterized the religion as ideation (Klein et al, 2002).

Anthropology and religious scholars have relied in shamanism concept since 1970s. Shamanism in modern western has created a complex adversarial connection between traditional and modernity.   In 20^th century, shamanism concepts were re-evaluated and America introduced new data in explain shamanism but a patent truth has remained to be derived from Siberia (Hutton, 2007).  Russian and other western nations have presented the shamanic practices in modern ages. In 16^th and 17^th century, Russians colonized Siberia and since this period, Siberia religion was established in the middle Ages and shamanism beliefs were practices in northern Scandinavia.  In 20^th century, historians started studying comparative religions of Siberian shamanism (Hutton, 2007).  Modern scholars follow the shamanism practices and elements in European prehistory and South African artworks.  Shamanism practices are found in Neolithic art and Siberians are practicing neoshamanism and are developing Neoshamanic movement.

The 19^th century notions have shaped the modern shamanism activities and have contributed to an enchanting nature.  In modern times, it is noticed that there is a division between the sacred and material world where the culture is newly ordered.  Shamanism activities have created the ‘New Age religion’ and diachronic development which both has caused the neoshamanism (Stuckard, 2002).  The important concept in western contemporary shamanism is nature.  Modern western shamanism derived some important features of nature from 20th century and the concept of nature has shaped the western mysticism. The nature and art in Europe and North America is derived from 18^th and 19^th century philosophy.  The old philosophy is explicit in modern times following  authors are applying Schelling philosophy, esoteric traditions and  others views them as romantic lineage in conducting shamanism activities (Stuckard, 2002).  In modernity, shamanisms activities are related with nature hence provide a great understanding of ecology and spiritual practices. Deep ecology has been used since 1972 to understand the ethics and politics and nature teleology in modern world.  In shamanism practices, the deep ecology is used to understand the earth and the cosmos and provides metaphysical explanation of interpreting the reality.  Thus, the 19^th century though provides a philosophy of nature in creating western esotericism and ‘New Age Science’ (Stuckard, 2002).

Religions and philosophies are using shamanism in understanding the eternal principle which connects humanity with nature. In modern times, people with religious believes are  defining shamanism as a way of  understanding one’s life, a way of improving inner powers, vitality as well as creativity (Meadows, 2004).  It is used as an ancient wisdom which through following the shamanism activity, one can become connected with nature and gain harmony. Thu, shamanism is used as a practical guide in connecting humanity with nature and helping people in fulfilling their spiritual needs.  The western art in modern times is shaping the shamanism activities by connected shamanism spirit with humanity and allowing people to understand the physical body, the mind, the soul and the spirit (Meadows, 2004).  In meeting personal fulfillment, people understand that all people are spirits   and the spirit is made of body, mind and soul. The spirit here stands for the life and   also it is the original being.  The spirit has the freedom to share its life-energies with other beings and create mutual understanding, harmony and control own existence and identity.  Shamanism spirit plays a great role in people’s life in teaching that people are wonderfully made and everyone has a purpose here on earth (Meadows, 2004).

 

In western world, shamans are valued for their great role of understanding the spirit of nature, the spirit of ancestors and others transpersonal forces by using the visionary ability.  In modern Chinese society, shamans are used as the spirit mediums where different practices such as healing, self-cultivation and exorcism are performed (Buxton, 2004). In modern China, Chinese artists apply theories, forms and ideas related with religion in trying to shape shamanism activity.  For example, Lu Dadong has applied the Japanese Zen painting in carrying out his activities such as perfuming art and teaching academic of art.  In exploring the modern art, shamanism play fundamental role in modern Chinese society.  The practices are practiced by shaman or by individuals for purpose of understanding the path of life (Buxton, 2004).  People pay interest in forming connection with the spirit in order to get guidance of life experience.  Since in tradition people used to consult shaman practitioners, in modern days the same case happens and people seeks solution of their problems from the practitioners.  Shamanism in modernity is closely examined in order to implemented classical period phenomenon in contemporary societies.  Western observes view shamanism practices as a way of connecting people with their traditional religion and understanding the nature of life (Buxton, 2004).

The western art in China is shaping shamanism practices in different ways.  The traditional ideas of Chinese culture are remembered in Xu Ma’s healing. The ideas are related with the notion that the ancestral spirits provides harmony which then creates a good health and fortune.  Modern society understands the sickness as a result of human negligence towards the world’s spirit and the spirit causes the evil to affect life (Miller, 2006). The western art provides solution as people understands that spirits must be given offerings in order to maintain harmony and free away from evil things.  In tradition, shamanism practices were being practices by diverse practitioners and these practices remained to be the local traditions even during the Confucianism hierarchy.  Modern shamanism practices play a great role of transforming the society in unique way through referring to traditional dialogue with shamanism spirit (Miller, 2006).  The practices focus on historical condition in creating social, economic and political change.  In recent phenomenon, the principles are tied with shamanism in performing actions.  Particular in the popular media and films, knowledge of possessing spirits are explicit with the purpose of showing Chinese traditional beliefs and its application in popular culture.  Modern Chinese society is presenting shamanistic practices and more important they are addressing the functions which the practices play in economic and political arena (Miller, 2006).

 

 Objects of art are seen in the arctic artists.  Individuals in Arctic regions put much interest in national culture and they apply the old ways of life in creating spiritual and material culture.  Many artists apply the mythology in learning the old and presenting characters of ethnic culture.  For example in 1993, International Exhibition which was represented by Art Arctica showed the native individuals from different places like Finland and Alaska (Lagerwey et al, 2015). Ethnocultural traditions were also applied in Soviet Union in 1980s and during this period, the art concentrated   on the spiritual and material life.  The historical-ethnographic themes presented the national qualities by the use of shamanism activities.

 In contemporary Chinese societies, the Western art represents shamanism activities in Chinese religions (Lagerwey et al, 2015).  Western art present the shamanism activity in Mongolian shamanism activity.  Shamans in Mongolia used to wear ceremonial dresses and long strips which could hang on the clothing.  The symbols in the clothing has unique and significance meaning.

 

Generally, western art have presented shamanism in modern world and there is an awakening in the shamanic practices.  Individuals are putting concern on ancient practices in order to understand the nature of shamanism and its role in shaping the culture (Lagerwey et al, 2015).  In post-modern era, the important thing with shamanism is the shamanic healing and the reflection on nature-based spirituality.  In 1980s, there was a new movement of understanding culture identity and during this period, Taiwanese art scene was development by the use of ideas from western art. For example, Pop Art, Fluxux and others implemented art activities which shaped the Taiwan art. In addition, the period of 1980s a marked western art development in that art museum known as Taipei Fine was developed in 1983 (Lagerwey et al, 2015).  The museum served many purposes as the art competition could be done in this place.

 In contemporary society, shamanism is used in the art   and it provides a therapeutic benefit.  In performing rituals, shamans use shamanism activities in conveying different meaning to different individuals (Lagerwey et al, 2015).  Shamanism activities are used in expressive arts for example   in art medicine.  In modernity, archaeological evident reveals that shamans are using shamanism activities such as spiritual practices from western practitioners.  In 21century, many societies are employing neo-Shamanism forms   in having a connection with the world (Lagerwey et al, 2015). In contemporary China, many Chinese cultures practice art in understanding the life as well as the world in general.  Modernity in Chinese culture is characterized with the interest of understanding rational world and modern western society.  In addition, the western art   has contributed to re-enchantment which gives individuals the urge to understand the natural world (Lagerwey et al, 2015).

 

Conclusion

Shamanism was a religious tradition which were practiced in China and mainly the activities were practiced by Neolithic and Hongshan culture. Chinese defined their shaman as Wu and different cultures could define Wu as a female and others as a male.  Zhou and Shang dynasty defined Wu differently and their difference perceptions develop diverse shamanism practices.  Generally, Wu was powerful and played the role of connecting supernatural forces, healing, making rain, divination and other religious practices.  Wu in Shang and Wu in Zhou practiced different practices where the former believed that Wu was a sacrifice, a spirit and a human being.  The latter believed that Wu was not a spirit but she was a person from untamed nature.  The Western Art has shaped the shamanism activity as many scholars have applied shamanism activities in their artwork.  Recent phenomena are used in Mesoamerican art in trying to understand the human history, religion and politics. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

References

Wong, E. (2011). Taoism: An essential guide. Boston: Shambhala.

 

Lindgren A. Linda (2010) Shamanism and Chinese Goddesses  ~Xi wangmu and Nugua~

Gilles Boileau (2002). Wu and Shaman

 

Klein F. Cecelia, Guzman Eulogio, Mandell C. Elisa & Mazzi-Stanfield Maya (2002). The Role

of Shamanism in Mesoamerican Art. A Reassessment.

 

Hutton, R. (2007). Shamans: Siberian spirituality and the Western imagination. London:

Hambledon Continuum.

 

Stuckard Von Kocku (2002). Reenchjanting Nature: Modern Western Shamanims and

Nineteenth-Century Thought.

 

Meadows, K., & Meadows, K. (2004). Shamanic spirit: A practical guide to personal fulfillment.

Rochester, Vt: Bear & Co.

 

Buxton, S. (2004). The Shamanic way of the bee: Ancient wisdom and healing practices of the bee

masters. Rochester, Vt: Destiny Books.

 

Miller, J. (2006). Chinese religions in contemporary societies. Santa Barbara, Calif. [u.a.: ABC-CLIO.

 

Lagerwey, J., Marsone, P., Teiser, S. F., Kern, M., Brook, T., & Conference. (2015). Handbook of Oriental

studies: = Handbuch der Orientalistik. Leiden: Brill.