Question 1
- Pierre Bourdieu once said, ‘The function of sociology, as of every science, is to reveal what is hidden.’ Utilizing the readings posted for Weeks 10 through 12, as well as at least one theorist read for this course, discuss the ways in which you understand sociological theory’s role in revealing the hidden aspects of social life.
Social Theories are analytical frameworks or paradigms that serve to study and interpret social phenomena. They are tools used by social scientists. Throughout this paper, I will show how conflict theories, symbolic interactionism, and social constructionism play a role in revealing the hidden aspects of social life using the works of Weber (1997), Buchanan (2010), Scott (2014) and Jiang (2009).
Conflict Theory is a perspective to studying society that focuses on the inequalities between groups of society. It concentrates on how society changes and adapts over time with conflict. In any society, there are two groups, the oppressed and the oppressor (Collins, et al., 1986). Karl Marx famously studied the class struggle that occurred in 19th century Europe, where the formation of two classes rose, the bourgeoisie ruling class and proletarian working class, in simple terms owner and the worker. Feminist Theory is a perspective used to shed light on gender inequalities. Focuses on patriarchal societies that have men occupying the governing positions within both the public and private spheres (Weber, 1997, p. 218). Women are marginalized, objectified and suppressed. Women and men are both often forced into socially acceptable roles with the basis of traditional ideologies.
According to Marx society exists in a perpetual state of conflict as a result of competition for the available limited resources. According to this theory social order is maintained through domination and power (Collins, et al., 1986). Marx emphasizes that the wealthy and powerful try and hold on to power by all means necessary including suppressing the poor. The basic premises of this theory is that individuals and groups in society will work to ensure that they maximize their benefits. This theory emphasizes that economic institutions are the tools of the struggle between societal groups, classes and are also used to maintain inequality and enhance the dominance of the already ruling class (Collins, et al., 1986).
Symbolic Interactionism is a perspective that examines how individuals of a society give meaning to something as a collective and is a major framework of the sociology theory. This perspective traces its origin to Marx Weber’s assertion that the acts of individuals are based on their understanding of the world (Reynolds, et al., 2003). For example, an engagement ring, society has deemed a symbol of love, happiness, and commitment. These are all characteristics that society has agreed upon. Our reality is a product of our interactions. The more experience an individual has, the better understanding of society and things that individuals will possess. Cultural capital leads to individuals having more opportunities and better experiences, giving them a better understanding of the world around them. Symbolic Interactionism can also be used to further understanding of fundamental aspects of individuals’ social experience and identities, these two are social constructs that function based on what individuals believe to be true concerning another judging from what they look like (Reynolds, et al., 2003).
Social Constructionism is a perspective that focuses on explaining the development of a jointly constructed understanding of the world from the basis of a shared assumption. We create everything through our mind, and members of our community agreeing upon value for things. Society members construct the world around them; they decide something to value and importance. Individuals seek comprehension of the world in which they live. Social constructionism aims to give meaning to reality and the things within it. Money is a social construct; it is relevant to us because we have deemed it valuable. We, as a society, have given importance to a 25-cent nickel or a 100-dollar bill. Without the significance society assigns to them, they are just metal and pieces of paper. ‘Race’ is a socially constructed classification of persons that is tied to beliefs about differences in the physical and genetic composition of individuals (Buchanan, 2010). It defines individuals as lesser than based on biological characteristics that the person possesses, without sound evidence. The creation of races is used as a means to justify maltreatment (Burr, 2015)
Gender is also a socially constructed concept (Scott, 2014). Traditional stereotypes and ideologies aid to configure societies' perceptions of gender. These stereotypes and ideologies act as binary outlines for how individuals of each gender are ought to act. They pose characteristics that are conventionally linked to male and female. Traditional masculine stereotypes generally expect men to me robust, assertive and bold where female stereotypes usually expect women to be polite, accommodating and nurturing. Our perceptions of maleness and femaleness are commonly how we express our gender. Religious teachings emphasize traits that men and women should adhere to (Jiang, 2009).
In conclusion, Social theories have been used as a framework that is used to explain social phenomena. Conflict theory focuses on explaining the inequalities that are rooted in the societies, these inequities divided the society into different groups the oppressor and the oppressed. Symbolic interactionism is a perspective that examines how individuals in society attach meaning to things. Social constructionism focuses on explaining jointly constructed understanding of the world, aspects to include money are as a result of socially construct.
Question 3:
To what extent are anticolonial theories able to escape from the racializing logics that lie behind colonialism? (Three theorists)
Throughout this essay, I will argue that anti-colonial theories aid to escape the racializing logics that lie behind colonialism. Using the work of Firmin, Colman and Du Bois. Anticolonial theories have contributed to the justification of the global and European imperialism and colonization of indigenous people. These theories have been based on the perception of superiority and inferiority.
Colonialism is defined as a practice of domination, which involved the subjugation of one people by another. Throughout colonialism, racism was utilized to further along the Europeans economic ideals and gains. Race was used as a means to justify the harsh maltreatment that was conducted towards black individuals. Race is a socially constructed classification that was used to make some members of society inferior to others. Biological differences were thought to be in correlation with skin color, making the notion that black individuals be less intelligent are less capable. (Colman).
These assumptions were concluded through flawed scientifical evidence. It was thought that through comparing cranial measurements and brain weight differences scientists believed that they could accurately measure one’s cognitive capacity (Archer, et al., 2000). However, constructed ideas concerning race remain as scientifically unsound since they have always been grounded in white superiority. For the longest time, the idea of white superiority has been viewed as common sense instead of being recognized as constructed.
Anticolonial theories were able to escape from the racializing logics that lie behind colonialism by not constructing new ideas, they furthered the ideas about differences on paper by giving and suggesting ideas that support the existence of a primitive society that s inferior. Nevertheless, the idea of race did not exist before the categorization of human beings as biologically and racially apart (Ashcroft, et al., 2013). The ideas of colonialization were furthered by the socially constructed notion of race. Most of anticolonial theories do not racialize the logic behind colonialism.
In conclusion, anti-colonial theories aid to escape the racializing logics that lie behind colonialism, theorists to include Firmin, Colman and Du Bois have explained how the racialization concept was behind colonialization. gains. Race was used as a means to justify the harsh maltreatment that was conducted towards black individuals. Anticolonial theories were able to escape from the racializing logics that lie behind colonialism by not constructing new ideas instead they furthered the ideas about differences
Question 5:
Using Mignolo and Fricker’s works to show the importance of thinking about hermeneutical and epistemic injustice, show how it is that one theorist exemplifies the ways in which knowers and knowledge are formed in modernity. (Mignolo, Fricker, and one additional theorist of “race” or gender)
Throughout this essay, I will argue that gender and racial minorities have experienced unequal opportunities to construct and gain knowledge due to Hermeneutical Injustice and Epistemic Injustice. I am focusing on the work of Fricker, Mignolo, De Beauvoir, and Simmel. Hermeneutical injustice refers to having a notable area of one’s social experience hidden from a collective understanding (Fricker, 158). Individuals in positions of power in society can impact society members' social understandings. They can sway the resources in their biases resulting in the reproduction of their desires through the knowledge that is produced.
Racial minorities have faced unequal access to social and economic capital. Racial Stereotypes play a significant role in establishing prevailing ideologies. Individuals that were not Anglo-Saxon were considered socially inferior. Historically there have been false accusations or correlations between the color of skin and characteristics of the person. Formally blacks have been deemed dishonorable and untrustworthy. These qualities have made them inadequate candidates for positions of authority and power within society. In addition to people in positions of power abiding by stereotypes, employers developed biases into hiring individual races to oppose to others. These hiring practices further translated into Historical Hiring Traditions. Those in the position to hire were likely to hire workers that embodied characteristics similar to themselves—reproducing the long-standing tradition of individuals in power predominantly being white males. Western Europeans created orientalism as a way to ‘other’ the people of Eastern Asia. A term intended to exoticize a group and construct an outgroup. Europeans were fascinated by the people of Eastern Asia, by their art and culture; however, they still viewed members of this society as less than them. Due to hermeneutical injustice, Eastern Asian individuals did not have a say in how their own identity was constructed. For that reason, a whole portion of their culture was lost through how Europeans in power were identifying them (Migonolo, 51).
Discriminatory treatment among different genders commonly was found both in the workforce and inside the home. Males traditionally occupy more dominant positions in the workforce. Holding these positions of a higher power, they obtain the ability to influence the control and construction of the knowledge that is available to society, including the societal norms that stand for the standard in society. Males in positions of authority historically engaged in degrading behavior toward female employees, making them feel uncomfortable or ‘lesser than’, however at the time this was viewed as the norm. Individuals frequently did not recognize the injustice within the circumstances because they were not aware of any other wat. Terms such as ‘sexual harassment’ have not yet been termed at this time though such incidents were already occurring. The lack of understanding served as a disadvantage to all; it was a consequence of the inability of knowing. (Fricker, 151).
Formally, women were unaware that they had the opportunity to engage in work outside the household. As far as their understanding, their job was the responsibility for the housework and the family. Traditional Gender Ideologies play a crucial role in producing and reproducing segregation. Traditionally, men were viewed as being ‘more able’ and ‘more evolved’ than women, making them a better candidate for work. Men were also customary thought to be better suited for the public sphere while women were thought to be better suited for the private sphere. This allotted men the opportunity to serve as the ‘breadwinner’ of the family, working in the community. The women were then subject to the home where they had the responsibility to manage the house and the family. Traditionally men were thought to be rational and independent. In contrast, women were considered to be caring, emotional and dependent. For this, the division of the public and private sphere in such a way seen as ideal. Social systems of cultural beliefs such as patriarchy are created by men to maintain superiority over women. Men with this value and belief system attempt to legitimately secure their dominance within the public and private frameworks, including obtaining jobs with positions of a higher power. Aged traditional writings acted as a means to justify the superior treatment of men. Roman Law has scripts limiting the rights of women (De Beauvior, 204). Other traditional writings lack the equivalent representation of both genders also impact hermeneutical injustice, showing how women’s culture has been lost throughout teachings and documents that are to be significant (Jiang, 203).
Historically individuals of minority groups, including women and members of different races, have been facing social inequality due to hermeneutical and epistemic injustice. These groups have tremendously been overlooked in the development of resources that produce society's knowledge. There has been a lack of representation of their culture that has affected how these groups have been viewed historically and within modernity.
References
Archer, M., and Jonathon Q. T., (2000). Rational Choice Theory: Resisting Colonization, Routledge, London.
Ashcroft, B., Griffiths, G., & Tiffin, H. (2013). Post-colonial studies: The key concepts. routledge.
Burr, V. (2015). Social constructionism. Routledge.
Collins, R., Randall, C., & Collins, R. A. (1986). Weberian sociological theory. Cambridge University Press.
Reynolds, L. T., & Herman-Kinney, N. J. (2003). Handbook of symbolic interactionism. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press.
