1) Denying the Antecedent：A fallacy, consisting of a conditional claim as one premise, a claim that denies the antecedent of the conditional as a second premise, and a claim that denies the consequent of the conditional as the conclusion.
Example: if the theory is correct, then the specimen is acidic. The specimen is acidic. Therefore, the theory is correct.
2) Composition: A fallacy that happens when a speaker or writer assumes that what is true of a group of things taken individually must also be true of those same things taken collectively; or assumes that what is true of the parts of a thing must be true of the things itself.
Example: This building is built from rectangular bricks; therefore, it must be rectangular.
3) Conversion: The converse of a categorical claim is the claim that results from switching the places of the subject and predicate term.
Example: E: No Norwegians are Slavs. No Slavs are Norwegians. I: Some state capitals are large cities. Some large cities are state capitals.
4) Bivalent Logic: In logic, the semantic principle (or law) of bivalence states that every declarative sentence expressing a proposition (of a theory under inspection) has exactly one truth-value, either true or false. A logic satisfying this principle is called a two-valued logic or bivalent logic.
Example: the three-valued Logic of Paradox (LP) validates the law of excluded middle, but not the law of non-contradiction, ¬(P ∧ ¬P), and its intended semantics is not bivalent. In classical two-valued logic both the law of excluded middle and thelaw of non-contradiction hold.[
5) Truth functional symbol (or operator): A representation of a sentence using only letters for its simplest parts-its independent clauses –and logical symbols for negation, conjunction, disjunction, and conditional claims.
Example: Moore will get we if Parker capsizes the boat.
6) Undistributed Middle: A fallacy that occurs when a speakers or writer assumes that two things related to third thing are necessary related to each other that even in principle.
Example: All cats are mammals. All dogs are mammals. Therefore all cats are dogs.
7) Appeal to Ignorance: A fallacy that occurs when a speaker or writer argues that we should believe a claim because nobody has proved it false.
Example: Nobody ha proved ghosts don’t exist; therefore they do.
8) Circular Reasoning: is a logical fallacy in which the reasoned begins with what they are trying to end with. The components of a circular argument are often logically valid because if the premises are true, the conclusion must be true.
Example: one can use it in arguments that are meant to inform instead of persuade, in which case the circularity is virtuous and not vicious. Also, circular reasoning can be used to positive effect in arguments designed to classify some piece of data within a theory.
9) Square of opposition: A table of the logical relationship between two categorical claims that correspond to each other.
Example: if we know only that value (true) of the corresponding O- claim. Nothing follows about either the E-or the I-claim. Because the A- and the E- claim can both be false, knowing that the A- claim is false does not tell us knowing that the A- claim is false does not tell us anything about the E-claim—it can still either true or false. And if the E- claim remains undetermined, then so must its contradictory, the I-claim.
10) Contrary: Two statements that cannot both are true but can both be false.
Example: The A proposition 'every man is honest' and the E proposition 'no man is honest' cannot both be true at the same time, since no one can be honest and not honest at the same time. But both can be false, if some men are honest, and some men are not. For if some men are honest, the proposition 'no man is honest' is false. And if some men are not honest, the proposition 'every man is honest' is false also.
