Similarities and differences between first language and second language literacy development

 Introduction

Based on theories developed by linguistic experts, the similarities and differences of bilingual literacy development may be explained in two different positions: the Linguistic Interdependence Hypothesis and the Linguistic Threshold Hypothesis. These two theories are mainly used to describe the factors that influence the development of second language literacy.

Under the linguistic interdependence hypothesis (Cummins 1981, 1991), the first language literacy develops a good foundation for the second languages reading development. This hypothesis believes that there are fundamental similarities between L1 and L2 and that these two language developments are interdependent (Lanauze & Snow, 1989). It further focuses that the reading performance of L2 is largely mutual with that of L2. In this hypothesis, if one acquires basic reading and writing skills (language operations) in L1 then these should easily be transferable to L2.( Peregoy & Boyle, 2000 )

The linguistics threshold hypothesis however denotes that a reader will have to develop a certain level of proficiency or threshold in L2 before they can apply L1 literacy skills in further developing their L2 skills. It should be noted however, that both of these theories acknowledge that indeed there is a certain close relationship between the literacy development of both L1 and L2.

The main differences between the first and second language acquisition under the inter-language theory stipulates that second language acquisition is self-motivated and characterized by a series of intermediary stages, from early to advanced, that reflect influences from the L1 and from developmental processes associated with L2. These include patterns that may be in L2 that are similar to those in L1.

The summation of all these theories into point form would in essence indicate that among other things, for the efficient acquisition of a second language one has to be self-motivated, unlike the first language, which comes naturally. Furthermore, L1 literacy is paramount and always affects L2 literacy directly or indirectly.

How L1 literacy influences L2 literacy development in ELLs

Oral proficiency

This is mainly drawn from the students’ social-cultural experience and their pre-existing knowledge about reading and writing (Maguire & Graves, 2001). This are the skill mainly taught in school. The same argument has been made for students who are trying to learn the second language. What these mean is that a student will try to translate what they know in L1 to what they perceive to be in L2 or rather they will draw on L1 experiences and abilities to the benefit of their performance of L2 tasks.

However, studies has shown that with some exceptions, measures of general L1 language proficiency or usage outside of school have not been found to relate constantly to the L2 literacy development of ELLs in school. Furthermore, it would appear that more specific measures of L1 oral language proficiency or usage, especially those that are related to literacy can have a more significant and positive developmental relationship with L2 literacy than do general oral language proficiency measures. In fact, ELLs with early L1 literacy experiences have the ability to be able to utilize these experiences in the continued development of literacy abilities in the L2. ELLs are also able to draw on existing L1 oral skills, either in the absence of similar levels of proficiency in the L2 or in addition to similar levels of proficiency, in the completion of their L2 literacy tasks.

 

Literacy development

Studies done concerning the relationship between oral proficiency and L2 literacy have also explored the effect of L1 literacy on the development of L2 literacy (Reese et al., 2000). These studies found that the relationship between literacy in the L1 and the L2 is at least as significant as, if not more significant than, that between L2 oral development and L2 literacy. These findings, argue that developing literacy in the first language does not detract from literacy development in the L2, but rather supports it. Studies further found that ELLs who were identified as the best L1 readers were deemed able to transition to English reading instruction earlier than other students were, and that early L1 reading ability was a significant predictor of English reading abilities. It was also found that ELLs their L1 proficiencies into their L2 tasks.

Variables that facilitate ELLs’ L2 literacy development in English

Socio-cultural, political and psychological variables

Literacy development in a bilingual context is affected by many factors. Some of these factors include political social and cultural variables that affect how an individual masters another language. The social cultural context is involved mostly how the student is brought up. Some researchers have discussed that home experiences play an important role in developing language skills, and through them, literacy skills ( Dickinson & Snow, 1987) .Through their experiences with both oral and written language in their homes or communities, children become familiar with the characteristics of their language and develop an understanding of the functions of literacy.

 

Schooling on the other hand provides the next layer of literacy interactions for children, and is especially important for those who have not been exposed to the kinds of literacy interactions known to promote early literacy development at home. Schooling provides the L1 basis needed to grasp L2.

 

Economic and political factors such as the status of the two languages in the larger society are also often considered. The economic strength of the language minority group, among others shape policy decisions. English is the universal business language thus the need for more people to learn it as a second language

 

These social factors operate at the family and community levels. They include factors such as group cohesiveness, links within the home language communities, and cultural identity. Also relevant are concerns about the utility of language and literacy in one or both languages, for example, the economic benefits of becoming literate in English. These factors influence parental attitudes and, through them, the nature and language of literacy practices at home, affecting children’s literacy development.

Phonological Awareness

Studies reviewed have indicated that phonological awareness is a common underlying ability that is linked to oral language development and is likely shared cross-linguistically; this is to say, phonological awareness in one language such as LI supports phonological awareness in an additional language such as L2 of the ELL, which, in turn affects the reading acquisition in English. These studies also suggest that phonological awareness in the L2 can be developed through direct intervention, even if L2 oral development is itself somewhat limited. It is important to note that L2 phonological awareness is extensively connected to L2 reading development, as L1 phonological awareness is linked to L1 reading development as was found (Carlisle, et al., (1999).

Orthographic Knowledge

This involves sound-letter correspondences and spelling report evidence for both language-specific and common developmental influences. Studies have shown that differences in sound-letter correspondence in the L1 and L2 can result in negative transfer from the L1. Studies show that students whose L1 is not English are more prone to introducing phonological and orthographic rules when asked to write selected words with contrastive spelling patterns unlike there counterparts whose L1 was English.

Cognate Vocabulary

Research on ELLs’ recognition and use of the similar relationship between L1 and L2 vocabulary has shown that ELLs can make use of L1 vocabulary knowledge to determine the meaning of cognate vocabulary in an L2 passage. All of the research on this issue has examined ELLs of Hispanic background. More specifically, found that more successful L2 readers were better able than less successful L2 readers to explicitly recognize Spanish-English cognates and to make use of their knowledge of cognates during reading (Nagy, et al., (1993) . These researchers also found that the ability to translate cognates from L2 to L1 was linked to individual students’ preference to speak L1 and their level of bilingualism and, in particular, their knowledge of L1 vocabulary, arguing, that ELLs’ L1 need not be a distracting but rather a facilitating factor in L2 literacy development.

Finally, it was found that some L1 ELLs are better able to make use of spelling than morphological similarities to recognize cognates, although use of morphological similarities increased with grade level. Thus, instruction in specific morphological similarities between cognates might contribute to the L2 literacy development of ELLs by enhancing their knowledge of these otherwise underused cognate relationships.

 

 

 

 

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References

Cummins, J. (1991). Interdependence of first and second-language proficiency in bilingual children. In E. Bialystok (Ed.), Language Processing in Bilingual Children. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Dickinson, D. & Snow, C. E. (1987). Interrelationships among pre-reading and oral language skills in kindergartners from two social classes. Early Childhood Quarterly, 2,

Lanauze, M., & Snow, C. (1989). The relation between first- and second-language writing skills: Evidence from Puerto Rican elementary school children in bilingual programs. Linguistics and Education, 1(4).

Maguire, M. H. & Graves, B. (2001). Speaking personalities in primary school children’s writing.TESOL Quarterly, 35.

Nagy, W.E., García, G.E., Durgunoglu, A.Y., & Hancin-Bhatt, B.J. (1993). Cross-language transfer of lexical knowledge: Bilingual students' use of cognates. Journal of Reading Behavior.

Peregoy , S. F., & Boyle, O. F. (2000). English learners reading English: What we know, what we need to know. Theory into Practice.

Peregoy, S. (1989). Relationship between second language oral proficiency and reading comprehension of bilingual fifth grade students. NABE Journal, 13(3).

Reese, L., Garnier, H., Gallimore, R., & Goldenberg, C. (2000). Longitudinal analysis of the antecedents of emergent Spanish literacy and middle-school English reading achievement of Spanish-speaking students. American Educational Research Journal, 37(3)

Verhoeven, L. (1994). Functional literacy: Theoretical issues and educational implications. Amsterdam