Women and politics
Introduction
Feminist movements have brought a remarkable development in the political arena. Feminism was a social movement and the sole purpose of the movement was to find a position of women in social status. The history clearly shows how women have struggled to find a position in the political position and to free from the male dominance. The history introduces the feminists’ writings from 19th century and the movement primarily focused on the right to vote. Women faced many challenged and situation was worse during 1950s, but in 1960s, there was a dramatic revival and the feminist movement gave rise to the ‘second wave’ feminism. The latter was significant as it concentrated on ‘women liberation’. In addition, the ‘second wave’ feminisms introduced the radical feminism and women in this group argued that there was a sexual division which created by ‘patriarchy’. The radical movement also recognized the distinction in the political arena and expressed their opinions on the need for both personal politics and sexual politics. The movement mainly focused on eliminating the public-private divide. The latter, for many years has put restrictions on women in public politics. However, in 1960s, women gained liberation and social power relationships, and the two have allowed women to enjoy mutual solidarity, property rights and public authority.
Mohanty introduces the ‘Third World Women’ and asserts that the world is characterized by power and resistance and destructive divisors[1]. However, women are in firm position due to their liberation movements. The author goes on to describe the third world societies and states that there is division on economy. The economy is controlled by the transnational corporations which have brought geographical divisions. Factories need cheap labor from the external environment and migrants enter in the cheap labor to continue with the economy. The high population of migrants has created multiracial society and so the socioeconomic system is made up by minority groups such as Africans, Europeans and other groups’ [2].The important point to consider is the role of women in the Third World as along as gender and race is concerned. The author asserts that third world feminisms play a significant role in the political arena and their role is connected with struggle with sexism, racisms, monopoly capita and more. Women have formed what is known as ‘imagined community’ where they have shown a ‘horizontal comradeship’[3]. They have shown a political role and their struggle with liberation is not constructed with color but it is concerned with the community, race and gender. In the political arena, women have formed ‘the unity of action’ and ‘the personal is political’[4]. The two aspects help the women to eliminate the public-private distinction. In general, third world women have focused on the elimination of oppressions and reinforcement on political marginality. It also focuses on racism and imperialism and the need to create a hegemonic society. It is worth saying that women and politics go hand in hand as they share history in the political arena. It is important to note that feminist politics focuses on two main issues namely race and racism. In executing their political role, woman believes that there should be naturalization laws which protect the social and economic life of people. In addition, third world feminist emphasizes on the elimination of ‘arbiter of patriarchies’ and capitalists states[5]. In other words, women roles are linked with ‘racial formation’ where socioeconomic and political aspects create a racial meaning. Note that third world women and the feminist movement is an oppositional movement which it main purpose is to create democratic American society and culture. Thus, racial formation is a key factor which creates collective social structures, naturalization laws, policies and practice, and individual identity.
Krook and Sarah Childs assert that women’s role in the political sphere has dramatically increased. Women have gained the political position through their social movements which has primarily dealt with issues such as discrimination, oppression and exclusion in the political arena[6]. Note that women movements have been associated with suffrage, liberation and gender roles. Since the movement started in many years ago, women have been interested with eliminating subordination. They have been involved in different types of feminisms namely liberal, radical and socialist feminism and all have a common purpose of eliminating all types of discrimination[7]. The important point to understand is that the social movement has played a significant role in assisting women in finding political positions. Women have struggled to be involved in the party system but their gender roles have been viewed as minority roles. They are assigned jobs such as clerical work or in other words their presence is not valued. They are not involved in decision making and public policy and for this reason; women have struggled to make sure that their voice is heard in the political sphere[8]. In the past decades, women have been denied the opportunity to participate in power structures. Women believe that for them to have a position in the political ladder, social movement and implement change are the key elements required. The movements have connected women with political positions in that they are involved in election and they can now enjoy the right to vote. The author asserts that women suffrage did not only benefit women in gaining a political position but it also brought world peace. For example, countries such as New Zealand and Norway introduced the women suffrage and later world States adopted the same[9].
Gilmore introduces the second-wave feminism as the movement which led to liberation. In 1970s, women formed various coalitions which focused on political ideology and women were more interested in fighting stereotypes and the class division which was created by white and middle-class people[10]. Women needed a power structure which could help them identify their identities and gain liberation. The author asserts that for women to be in the political position, they formed a coalition with a common agenda. In 1971, the Women’s Action Alliance was formed and created collective principles which could control them in demanding for equality and participation in the political sphere[11]. Women had suffered from gender, race and sexual discrimination and the movement could help them gain the human rights and enjoy liberation. Woman created National Women’s Agenda and they presented various concern[12]. For example, women needed influence and authority and so they petitioned the government for participation in the political issues[13]. In addition, women needed further education and so they demanded antidiscrimination laws which could assist them in attaining education. Women were discriminated and they could not access media. The agenda focused on eliminating the stereotype and offer fair treatment in access to media. The second-wave movement focused on equality between men and women in the political arena. Second-wave movement was controlled by socialists who focused on women’s liberation and this could achieve through equality. The principle of equality in the women’s role was of importance as it could set laws and meet the women’s best interests[14].
Women have entered in political participation even though they have passed through hardships in achieving the leadership. The challenges faced have been introduced by working-class and woman of color who tend to create a boundary in terms of sex and race[15]. However, women have used several tactics to ensure that they are counted as human beings in the community as well as in the political arena. Since history, women formed organizations which could empower them in achieving leadership position. The article introduces the wave feminism and asserts that in 1850s, women introduced the first wave of feminism which was mainly directed to the right to vote[16]. The second feminism was introduced in 1960s and women in this period were interested with eliminating inequality and valuing the position of women in the society. In the second wave feminism, women opened rallies which could be termed as “the personal is politics”[17]. This was a political agenda which was mainly connected with a social change and a political relation. Issues such as sexual harassment and violence were rarely discussed in the political sphere and so the movements petitioned the political officials to make social change and create an inclusive society. In 1980s and 1990s, women were more involved in political activities and marked the third wave of feminism.
Burell asserts that for women to gain the path or opportunity of entering in the political sphere, they first developed the movements based on right to vote[18]. The Women’s rights convection was held at Seneca Falls in 1848 and the main concern in the convection was gaining rights on education, property rights, earning and personhood rights. The right which encompasses these issues was connected with right to vote and the arguments were that there should equality between men and women and both should access equal rights. Women believed that men had their own dominance and had created their own government and enjoyed inalienable right[19]. Women on the other hand were inferiors and were under the male dominance. The argument was that both men and women should enjoy the natural right and have access to the intellectual and spiritual right. Women argued that the right to vote will allow the women to have the basic rights and the rights could help them change the society. Women had suffered from ill-treatment from men and sexual crimes. Right to vote could eliminate the harsh condition and build a peaceful society. In addition, women argued that right to vote could allow women to participate in public-policy making. In 19th century, National American Woman Suffrage was developed and colored women could not join the association. In 1903, ‘states rights’ and the Southern members had the right to express racism views toward the northern members[20]. However, women had the highest votes in 1920, and the NAWSA was changed to League of Women Voters (LWV). The National Federation of Business and Professional Women’s Clubs (BPV) joined the LWV and the two groups (LWV and BPW) reinforced the independent citizenship for women and participation in the electoral activity[21]. Few women in these groups become public officers.
The period of 1960s was marked by the second-wave of feminism and during this period, women showed their concern on social rights[22]. This movement was dedicated to end the patriarchy and achieve the equality on socioeconomic and political issues. In addition, end of patriarchy could end the sexism, racism, violence and related actions. Radical feminists in the second-wave feminisms believed that there must be a revolution in the society in order to achieve the equality. This ideology developed the Black Feminist Movement which aimed to fight the class oppressions and racism. Oppression has created the second-class citizens which has hindered economic opportunity[23]. Thus, the Black liberation movement was formed to deal with oppression and to eliminate the race, class and gender. The book is important as it shows that third-wave feminism is the contemporary feminism which originated from 1980s and 1990s[24]. The feminism characterizes the aspects of society and it has also developed gender equality and women in American society have the opportunity to contribute unique perspectives in developing the society. Third-wave feminism is more about political consciousness and women participate in making policy and hanging the community.
Having understood that women have a leadership position in the politics, the movement which has helped them to achieve the goals has led to remarkable development in their lives. This is because; they have an educational attainment which was established in 1972 in the Title IX[25]. Women have the educational opportunity and there is no sexual or race discrimination on issues of educations. The important point is that women participation in the political arena is high in that they are attaining doctoral or professional degree than men. In the contemporary era, women have entered in the labor-force field without sex or race discrimination[26]. The Equal Pay Act which was created in 1963 announced the equal pay. Finally, women have also benefited from economic prosperity. The feminist era shaped the education and employment and the development has eliminated poverty.
Gelb and Palley say that the women’s status is connected with politics as this is an area where discrimination is apparent[27]. The questions which would help to understand the topic are how are women represented in the political institutions? What factors are responsible to promote or to discourage the women’s presentation in the political arena? And last, does the transitional feminism have an impact on the women’s political status? According to the author, politics in women is an issue of concern in that in the past decades, politics have been associated with masculine domain. It is important to understand that women are excluded in the politics despite the fact that political representation is the only way which women’s voice can be heard[28]. To answer these question, the author assets that transnational feminism have played a significant role in presenting women in the political arena. Women have used their own empowerment and the movement to gain empowerment was led by discrimination victims like Elizabeth Cady Stanton. Having passed through various movements and conventions, it is worth saying that women have found a firm position in the political arena. Since 17th century up to 20th century of feminism movement, women have formed domestic and international alliances and these movements have remarkably resulted to positive outcomes since women did not only gained the important rights but they have entered in political leadership in 19th and 20th century[29]. Political participation in women is evidence after the Second World War. In 1954, UN was formed and majority of women presented the women status in the UN and in 1948, there was a Universal Declaration of Human Rights. The author puts concern on transnational feminism and states that it has led to remarkable changes not only in the women’s lives but also in the government structure. For example, UN has influenced many countries in developing gender equality, gender discriminatory policies, gender quotas and female political representation[30]. Women’s political status has also been improved in that international agencies have created programs which have changed the women’s lives. Note that the global movement was socially constructed and it means that it dealt with socioeconomic and political issues. Thus, women have found a political space where they participate in making policy on issues affecting women in the globe.
Weatherford asserts that women’s political activism primarily focused on the right to vote. Women engaged in political life in 19th century when they developed the suffrage movement[31]. Women and politics are two separate things which the bond which joins them was developed in 1850s by feminist women such as Elizabeth Cady Stanton. The feminists were interested with political and social change and during the period, women’s rights were connected with political landscape. However, the movement and need for social change decreased during the Civil War. Remarkably, the movement increased at the end of the war and in this time they were against the 14th and 15th amendments which denied women rights to vote[32]. When Susan B. Anthony died, other radical leaders such as Lucy Burns continued with the movement and led political changes in 1922. During this period, political change was apparent in that women voted. However, the Second World War hindered political development in women but in 1960s, feminism movement was revived and in this period benefited from the second-wave feminism. Feminism rebirth occurred in 1960s and 1970s and these periods led to remarkable in the politics of the society[33]. In contemporary world, there is a State equality which was influenced by the feminist movement. Movement development is apparent in the political environment in that the society where women live is centralized and is controlled by a dominated system. Feminism movement was associated with collective actions and the involved groups have formal leadership in the political arena. In addition, the movement led to the creation of political structures where socioeconomic changes are considered. The feminist movement is also included in the economic and social setting and it play role in strengthening the political sphere[34]. Political institutions create the ‘political opportunity structure’ which influences positive policy. Generally, suffrage movement transformed the political landscape in that in contemporary world; women have the right to vote and to share their opinion in decision making.
Since various literature have explained the struggle of women in gaining social identity and political leadership, Paxton & Hughes asserts that politics involves the process of making decisions but there is problem since the decision is only made by men[35]. This is an indication that there is gender inequality in the political sphere and women are under-represented. This brings big challenges in that when men make decisions, they do not value the women’s interest as long as domestic violence, rape and health care are concerned. The author argues women should participate in the political decision and offer their own opinions. The author goes on to argue that there should be equality between men and women in that women make 50% of the population[36]. There should be formal representation- this means that women should participate in the political arena the same way with men. There should be no barrier or restriction in women’s participation in decision making. On the same note, discrimination in the political arena should be eliminated and women should enjoy the right to vote and enjoy the same opportunities with men. The second conception of representation is descriptive representation which minas that there should be equal opportunities in the constitutions. In other words, women make 50% of the population and so they should improve 50% in the executive bodies. Note that for women to achieve formal representation, they should have the opportunity to enter in political careers[37]. Note that legal right and access to socioeconomic benefits are important but they will hinder women participation in the political arena. Thus, for women to remain the in political arena there should be gender quotas and allow women to be presented in the politics. In other words, even if women will have equal rights with men, they should enter in the politics to present the gender groups and the challenge they face. Thus, women should have a position to presents the specific interests of the group[38]. Finally, the author asserts that women should have a political position or in other words there should be substantive representation. This means that women should have a position in the political to present the issues which affect women. The importance of women in presenting women’s issue is that the female politician will participate in making policies regarding feminists. In addition, she may present issue which directly and indirectly affects the lives of women. Generally, the author introduces the topic on woman and politics, and his main point is that women position in the political arena was as a result of the women’s suffrage which was developed in the 19th century[39].
Conclusion
Statistics from the world population show that women’s’ total population is 50%. In the past decades, women have struggled for human rights and political positions. However, their struggle and movement have eliminated the discrimination and have created democratic society. Various researches on women and politics have confirmed that in 21st century, women have prominent positions in the political arena and there are no traditional stereotypes which hinder political development. Remarkable, women in politics have brought significant changes in that they create an inclusive society, governance and economic developed. They achieve this through planning an authorized spending and ending poverty. Women movements which started back in 19th century have not only found a position in the politics but the movement has also created gender equality. An important point is that women in the politics have ensured a transparent governance, effective policies and positive outcomes through participating in a bipartisan manner.
Work cited
Mohanty, Chandra T. Third World Women and the Politics of Feminism. Bloomington [u.a.: Indiana Univ.
Press, 1993. Print.
Krook, Mona L, and Sarah Childs. Women, Gender, and Politics: A Reader. Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 2010. Print.
Gilmore, Stephanie. Feminist Coalitions: Historical Perspectives on Second-Wave Feminism in the United
States. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2008. Print.
Burrell, Barbara C. Women and Political Participation: A Reference Handbook. Santa Barbara, Calif. [u.a.:
ABC-CLIO, 2004. Print.
Paxton, Pamela M, and Melanie M. Hughes. Women, Politics, and Power: A Global Perspective. Los
Angeles: Pine Forge Press, 2007. Print.
Gelb, Joyce, and Marian L. Palley. Women and Politics Around the World: A Comparative History and
Survey. Santa Barbara, Calif: ABC-CLIO, 2009. Print.
Weatherford, Doris. Women in American Politics: History and Milestones. Los Angeles: SAGE, 2012.
Print.
[1] Mohanty, Chandra T. Third World Women and the Politics of Feminism. Bloomington [u.a.: Indiana Univ. Press, 1993. Print. P. 269
[2]Ibid 270
[3] Ibid 274
[4] Ibid 314
[5] Ibid 318
[6] Krook, Mona L, and Sarah Childs. Women, Gender, and Politics: A Reader. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010. Print. Pg 19
[7] Ibid pg 183
[8] Ibid pg 125
[9] Ibid pg 291
[10] Gilmore, Stephanie. Feminist Coalitions: Historical Perspectives on Second-Wave Feminism in the United States. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2008. Print.pg 252
[11] Ibid pg 258
[12] Ibid pg 260
[13] Ibid pg280
[14] Ibid pg284
[15] Ibid pg 298
[16] Ibid Pg 299
[17] Ibid Pg 299
[18] Burrell, Barbara C. Women and Political Participation: A Reference Handbook. Santa Barbara, Calif. [u.a.: ABC-CLIO, 2004. Print.Pg 4
[19] Ibid pg 5
[20] Ibid pg 7
[21] Ibid pg 7
[22] Ibid pg 9
[23] Ibid pg 13
[24] Ibid pg 15
[25] Ibid 15
[26] Ibid15
[27] Gelb, Joyce, and Marian L. Palley. Women and Politics Around the World: A Comparative History and Survey. Santa Barbara, Calif: ABC-CLIO, 2009. Print.pg 29
[28] Ibid pg 30
[29] Ibid pg 38
[30] Ibid pg 40
[31] Weatherford, Doris. Women in American Politics: History and Milestones. Los Angeles: SAGE, 2012. Print.pg 1
[32] Ibid pg 38
[33] Ibid pg 41
[34] Ibid pg 45
[35] Paxton, Pamela M, and Melanie M. Hughes. Women, Politics, and Power: A Global Perspective. Los Angeles: Pine Forge Press, 2007. Print.pg 3
[36] Ibid pg 4
[37] Ibid pg 29
[38] Ibid pg 63
[39] Ibid pg 80
