Introduction

Violence against women as discussed by feminists and the UN can be described as any act of gender known violence that harms women physically, sexually and emotionally that end up causing suffering to the lives of women. It is reported that large numbers of women and children go through domestic violence especially in Africa. Women go through different types of violence for example domestic violence, forced marriages, female genital mutilation, rape, gender based violence, human trafficking and different assaults. Women experience violence even by people they love and trust where many ended up dying in the hands of husbands, family members and lovers as well. Violence against women and girls not only in Africa causes suffering, pain and emotional problems that ends up causing trauma and death. Violence end up incurring high economic costs in terms of high judicial costs and loss of productivity among those affected. The governments in different countries globally spend much money in order to fight domestic violence and solve the violence cases. Feminist activists have come up in support of ending domestic violence but have not yet succeeded since many cases are reported in the African countries. Different laws and rules have come up in order to fight domestic violence in Africa though violence cases are still reported on daily basis. Preventing and ending up domestic violence needs much attention and finances which the African governments fail to give. Funding is a major problem to those organizations and feminist activists who fight against domestic violence. Most organizations need funding in order to deal with gender violence cases therefore governments in different countries need to fund the organizations.

Preventing gender based violence is one of the functions of the government as well as women’s rights associations. Some norms in most societies portray women as inferior people compared to men therefore posing a threat to the government and feminist efforts to combat domestic violence. World Health Organization (WHO) reported that domestic violence is a worldwide problem all over the globe. WHO, carried out a study in 2005 that showed how most women in Tanzania, Ethiopia and Kenya among other African countries have suffered from domestic violence and other types of violence[1]. Domestic violence worsens the health problems affecting women especially in the African countries. Intimate partners and husbands were reported to carry out domestic violence in form of beatings and other types of violence therefore subjecting women to traumas and devastating their health. Domestic violence is known to go beyond beatings. Violence takes place in different forms including forced marriages and female genital mutilation which takes place in most African countries. WHO, reports that female genital mutilation has been known to cause different problems amongst women[2]. Excessive bleeding and infections come along with the genital mutilation which eventually causes death to most African women who are forced to go through the harmful physical exercise. Based on this report from WHO domestic violence has been a major problem the African woman faces though feminist movements have been fighting against this violence and other types of violence women go through. It is reported that some women are forced in to abortion and prostitution which is against human rights and women rights as well. Domestic violence has been a major reason in contributing untimely deaths in women and children as well as subjecting them to trauma. Therefore this paper aims at discussing whether feminist movements contributed to or not in eliminating domestic violence in Africa.

The women’s movement and the United Nations

Violence against women came to prominence after many women organization globally pushed for the rights of women to be upheld. Women identified that men had dominated them and that they were not only viewed as inferior people but subjected to violence of all types. The women organizations pushed for gender equality and equity in order to eradicate cases of gender based violence[3]. The women organizations identified violence as one form of discrimination that needed to be addressed in the most efficient manner. The organizations identified different types of discrimination and violence and pushed for the governments to ensure the violence cases were handled with the seriousness they deserved. The organizations ensured that violence was handled as a serious issue since it had been ignore making many women suffer not only in Africa but globally. Looking at an international level, violence against women was addressed by the United Nations since it was an important issue that needed immediate action and prevention measures carried out. The women organizations had dealt with some violence such as women trafficking for prostitution therefore the UN came in support of what the women organizations had began. The United Nations Decade for Women created awareness on the issue of violence against women and ensured most people understood on the issue and importance of fighting against the violence. United Nations supported the women organizations and ensured they monitored the progress on the fight against women violence globally. The World Plan Of Auction For Women supported the issue of violence against women by ensuring families came together where education programs were introduced in order to ensure family conflicts were resolved which would eventually cause violence.

During 1985 the violence against women issue was more prominent especially in the Third World Conference on Women in Nairobi which pushed for the rights of women to be respected[4]. The Nairobi Forward Looking for the Advancements of Women was concerned with women and recognized women who had been through domestic violence and other types of violence. The organization pushed for prevention of women violence which caused much trauma and to some extent death to the victims. The organization aimed at identified forward strategies that would ensure violence against women was dealt with and handled with the importance it deserved. The organization teamed up with the UN in ensuring violence against women was brought in to the light and preventive measures identified that would stop the violence. The forward strategies included legal measures in dealing with violence cases, preventive measures and policies, assistance to the victims and national machinery in order to ensure violence cases were combated[5]. The forward strategies also ensured public awareness was done in order to educate people on importance of preventing and stopping violence against women. The organization ensured that violence against women was handled in the right manner and that the public was made aware of the violence and consequences of the violence on the lives of women. The United Nations decade for women involved itself in handling violence criminal cases and ensuring those carrying out violence faced the law. The organization ensured that domestic violence was addressed and that appropriate laws and measures were put in place that would ensure domestic violence was stopped. The organization ensured that law enforcement was possible in dealing with domestic violence cases at the national levels in the African countries.

During early 1990s women organizations through various activists came up together and lobbied on the issue of violence and discrimination against women. The organizations came up together in support of women rights as part of the human rights. The women movements ensured they gained recognition through the media in support of fight against violence since many women had suffered as a result of domestic violence and other forms of violence and discrimination[6]. Lobbying for respect of women rights and fight against violence was steered by the World Conference on Human Rights which happened in Vienna during 1993. The conference ensured that women movements fought for the rights of women and fought against domestic violence and other forms of discrimination. Women lobbied globally and nationally as they fought against women violence and ensured the human rights laws identified women rights as part of the human rights laws. The women activists pushed for violence to be considered as violation of human rights and that people caught carrying out violence would face legal consequences in the courts of law. A global tribunal was created which would handle different violence cases from all countries globally as one way of combating violence against women. The conference ensured that violence would not be treated as a legal issue with those violating the laws facing legal consequences. The conference identified violence against women as one way of discrimination and ensured that preventive measures were identified which would ensure violence was dealt with in the right manner. In addition the human rights framework included women rights as part of the human rights meaning that women would no longer face discrimination and violence.

Taking on domestic violence against women in Africa

Those who practice violence against women have had a bad past which either saw them growing up in violent homes and were subjected to violence and often are known to abuse drugs and alcohol. A study carried out by the UN Population Fund back in 2000 showed that men in some African countries had the right to beat their wives as one way of punishing them when they do wrong.  Men in Africa in some societies are given rights to intimidate and beat their women as one way of correcting them since men are viewed as superior people compared to women. A study carried out on domestic violence in Uganda carried out by the US Human Rights Watch found out that families were seen to justify widows to be remarried to other males in the same families as a tradition that allowed bride price to be fully utilized[7]. That tradition is practiced in most African countries where the widow is inherited by a male in the same family since it is argued that once bride price is paid the woman becomes a property of the family. The widow once inherited looses all her property to the new husband. In case a woman has divorced the husband, dowry is supposed to be reimbursed by the woman’s family. In most cases the women seeking divorce is beaten by her brothers and forced to stay in her marriage since families do not allow returning the bride price[8]. This shows that women are viewed as properties and their feelings are not put in place in most African countries. Research has found out that HIV is more likely to be spread from one person to another in societies that have wife inheritance as a tradition.

African women suffer under the hands of men who assault them simply because men act as bread winners in the families. WHO, carried out a research and found out that women prefer living with husbands who batter and have been used to the routine of being assaulted because of the financial gains they get from men. Most women in Africa are house wives who carry out house chores and give birth as their main roles in the societies. The World Health Organization found that women in Africa who have at least secondary education are able to make wise decisions in their marriages and are able to decide whether they want to get married and who they should get married to. Education has been a major factor in fighting domestic violence from the research carried out since women are able to make decisions on their own[9]. Education has ensured that lower cases of violence are reported in African countries where women are given equal education opportunities with men. Educated women are able to make decisions and express themselves compared to those uneducated ones who view themselves as inferior compared to men. Women are not inferior compared to men thus need to be respected since they can carry out activities just like men can do. The level of education however is important since educated women are unlike uneducated ones who are easily manipulated by men and forced into activities they did not want. African countries need to endorse women education as one way of fighting against domestic violence and other forms of violence.

Security Reform as a Key to Protecting Women

Africa has been a victim of sexual conflict in countries at war for example sierra Leone, Liberia, Burundi , Democratic Republic of Congo and countries that are not at war in Africa for example Kenya and many more. Women are at the risk of rape and other forms of sexual harassment and victimization in Africa. In rare cases the police and other law enforcers take the crimes seriously if anything some of the policemen and soldiers especially in war zone areas are deemed among the abusers. Africa has found itself falling short of the responsibilities to protect women. In the willingness to safeguard women security institutions are taking steps to reform their ability in protection of women. One of the steps taken is that of cleaning out ranks by getting rid of personnel in guilty of abuse in the security forces. In Liberia for example, after a decade of civil war vetting panels were used to assess qualifications of applicants in the armed forces. The names and photos of interested parties were circulated to the public for criticizing. Any negative information disqualified a candidate and therefore he was rejected. Vetting process was also applied in DRC though women are still brutalized and the united nations associate it to the remnants of anti-government groups[10]. Another step taken has been training and staffing in the military and police personnel department. The question of women’s rights and gender based violence has been added to the police and military training programs. Though training does not have a great impact changes in the staffing has helped a deal. This is by recruiting and promoting more female figures in the security organs through gender balance when recruiting.

Kenya has been on the front line with gender equality debates in parliament while Liberia, which produced the first elected female president named Ellen Johnson-Sir Leaf, announced a goal of achieving military that would be twenty percent female. The main challenge to the aspect is that not many women applicants completed secondary education or obtained certificates from polytechnics locking them out. South Africa after a gender mainstreaming has been recruiting female troops and police since themid-1990s[11]. A third step is taking legal action by pursuing the criminals of sexual violence. Across Africa accessing justice by women remain limited reasons being weakness of courts which are usually situated in the big towns and urban areas with high court fees and corruption across the judiciary. New legal aids clinics have been established with also special units being set aside in countries like Liberia, Kenya, Sierra Leone and South Africa to deal with the offences related to sexual harassment. These units provide training programs for magistrates and also offers free legal advice to victims, arranges protection for witnesses. Another vocal step has been breaking the silence about sexual harassment by women’s organizations that expose the people behind the acts. Violence against women cannot be curbed by security institutions on their own because wide tolerance of abuses happens in the family which are private spaces. In Sierra Leone for example studies show that most women who qualified for the army and police were ordered not to join by their husbands.  Grass root action in schools, churches, market places and public venues is vital by breaking the silence for women to speak out.

Culture and domestic violence against Women in Africa

Norms and practices in a culture may either empower women or promote their human rights, customs, traditions and religious values or they may also be used to justify the violence against women in the society. In most cases of violence against women the victim is bound by culture to the abusers actions. Most women are assaulted as a result of choices certain men in the community made and cultural powers that allow the violence to be rampant[12]. Violence against women could be in various forms among them sexual violence physical violence, homicide and femicide. Domestic violence against women about 66percent is perpetrated by men women know or male partners. Some cultural practices for example female genital mutilation, child marriage and son preference are seen as some of the factors for violence against women. The ways culture makes violence of women seem like is as varied as culture on its own, for example it’s deemed that most teenage girls’ ages fourteen to twenty four report high rate of sexual violence in romantic dating relationships which are culturally constructed expectations. Some manifestation of killing women because they are women, femicide, is related to cultural norms and use of violence in women subordination[13]. Motives of femicide among them being custody or financial motives usually are done by an intimate person or a person she knows. In south Africa for example the rate of femicide is five times higher than the global average .Culture is  powerfully related to social, economic and political processes and not only a set of beliefs and practices. Women have to put effort in addressing rights in their specific communities. Violence caused by cultural factors must be investigated within diverse cultural settings by having to consider the ways in which concept of culture has been used.

Economic Inequalities and Violence against Women

Women are making an invaluable contribution to the economy through their paid and unpaid labor everywhere. Despite that, women have a high representation in the 70 percent of people living in poverty in countries for example Nigeria. African women are denied the same kind of economical privileges that men enjoy. Women loose out in education, work and health sectors. Their work is invisible in most cases or even worse poorly paid. Economic inequalities can therefore be a casual factor leading to violence against women at individual levels or economic trends that create enabling conditions for the violence[14]. Violence and economic inequalities are twin injustices that women experience in Africa. Women economic inequalities and discrimination in areas like employment, income and access to resources increases the risks of violence due to less capacity in decision making. The lack of economic empowerment for women is reflected in lack of access to economic resources like land, personal property and wages which place them at the lime light of violence. Economic independence may not shield women from violence but access to resources can enhance women’s capacity to make choices that include escaping violent scenarios and accessing protection against situations of violence. Most national governments aim at economic restructuring in order to help promote and ensure women’s equality socially and economically through public sectors programs and social spending[15]. Gender changes in the economy can be argued as an important factor in prevention of violence against women. Women should be given a platform to get the significant economic resources in order to help reduce the odds of intimate partner violence.  Effort should be made in development of both economic and violence prevention policies to combat violence against women.

Forms and manifestations of violence against women in various settings

Violence against women has been reported and documented by different bodies such as the UN, different media houses and organizations that have received violence cases. Acts of violence against women are well documented since violence cases continue to be reported especially in African countries. Violence against women may be initiated by the family, the state and the general community. The Beijing platform for action and the declaration on elimination of violence against women are known to address violence against women[16]. Most form of violence against women occurs in more than one setting for instance where harmful traditions cause the violence while they are supported by the community and family but are against the state laws. Women’s trafficking is one form of violence against women that involves family, community, state and even crosses to the international boundaries. Women face violence in different settings since family, state, community and other bodies are involved. Violence against women takes place within the family and the most identified violence types include battering, sexual abuse, marital rape, female genital mutilation, sexual abuse in small girls, early and forced marriages among young girls, violence against domestic workers and other different forms of exploitation and discrimination[17]. Domestic violence is the most form of violence that is reported hence much research and data is present and available. Intimate partner violence is the most common type of domestic violence African women as well as other women globally go through. Domestic violence in form of intimate partner violence causes traumas and psychologically problems to the victims especially those who are not able to report the abuse cases.

Most women are physically and sexually abused by their intimate partners and husbands. Most women are abused by men who abuse alcohol and drugs as research carried out has found out. Women are subjected to domestic violence such as economic and psychological violence. Some men deny women access to express themselves and control basic resources yet women in Africa take care of domestic chores. WHO reports that Ethiopia, Namibia and Tanzania lead in domestic violence cases in Africa while Japan and Thailand outside Africa[18]. Severe domestic violence eventually causes death to the victims where most untimely deaths amongst women are caused by the violence. Research found out that most women are killed either by husbands or boyfriends especially in South Africa and United States. Women are subjected to battering and different forms of assaults even during pregnancy as research found out. Women are physically abused during pregnancy and it is sad how some women succumb to the violence showing that violence need to be addressed as a major issue affecting women not only in Africa but globally. World Health Organization in its research found out that some women are exposed to emotional abuse where men treat them as inferior people who are weak and are not able to express themselves. Most women especially in Egypt are subjected to emotional abuse whereby men control all the activities and impose authority on the women failure to which battering takes place. Most women are seen to persevere to the abuse since they are not able to report since the community and family endorses some forms of the domestic violence. Some women go through verbal abuse where they are insulted by men therefore end up suffering from traumas.

Harmful traditional practices

Harmful traditions are practices supported by the community and family that end up causing discrimination and violence against women. Female genital mutilation, early and forced marriages and inciting widows to commit suicide are examples of harmful traditional practices that cause violence against women[19]. Some practices such dietary restrictions amongst the pregnancy women and wife inheritance, are examples of harmful traditional practices that violate the rights of women. In the African counties as well as Middle East countries it is estimated that most women have undergone through female genital mutilation which is a part of the traditional practices. The practice is common among the immigrant communities especially in Europe and North America. Guinea is the leading African countries in practicing female genital mutilation followed by Egypt, Ethiopia, Benin, Ghana, Niger and other African countries. Women’s group, organizations and movements have been fighting this harmful practice since it has negative consequences on the lives of women. The women organizations have almost succeeded in ending this practice though some communities still subject their young girls to this harmful practice which is being fought by most feminists[20]. Higher education status among women has ensured that the harmful practice is done away with since women are able to understand the negative consequences female genital mutilation has on their lives. Early marriages also impact negatively on the lives of women since it affects health of young girls since they are not strong to handle pregnancy and hard domestic chores. Young girls need to mature first for them to get married therefore subjecting them to early marriages is a form of domestic violence, exploitation and discrimination.

Advocacy and campaigns

Advocacy efforts and campaigns used to expose unacceptable violence against women continue taking place and ensure violence against women is stopped. Women organizations and movements ensure women are made aware of their rights and educated on measures of reporting those who violate their rights[21]. The campaigns are initiatives of women movements who push the government to ensure that women are respected and that preventive measures are put in place in order to combat violence against women. The women movements have succeeded in airing out the grievances of women since research shows that domestic violence cases being reported are on the decline. The women movements have ensured that women are educated on their rights and are taught on how to express their ideas since they are not inferior people compared to men[22]. The women movements ensure that they campaigns and advocate for the rights of women through carrying out demonstrations in the streets and using the media inclusive of televisions, print and social media. In 1998 a Tanzanian NGO known as the Tanzanian Media Women’s Association came up with a campaign against female genital mutilation through promoting enactment of the Sexual Offences Special Provision Act. The NGO teamed up together with other organizations in the fight against female genital mutilation which had claimed lives of young girls in the country. The campaign involved use of magazines, televisions and radio programs and social surveys which all aimed at educating women on the negative consequences of female genital mutilation. Theater artists and media personnel were involved in the fight against this harmful tradition[23]. The NGO provided educational materials to the public and created a website that provided more information on female genital mutilation.

Feminist movements have ensured they mobilize the communities as one strategy in prevention and fight of domestic violence. The women groups ensure they join together with the local leaders and other NGOs in the fight against domestic violence and other types of violence. Raising Voice is a women group organization which fights against women violence either by police, community and husbands in Kampala[24]. The women group ensures women rights are respected as part of human rights through carrying out various campaigns and demonstrations which support prevention of domestic violence. In Egypt the women groups ensured they mobilized the community through the religious leaders who then taught people the adverse effects of FGM since it was a common practice that claimed lives of people. The women group succeeded in the fight against FGM in Egypt since men agreed they would not marry circumcised and young girls. The religious leaders played important roles in convincing the people on the negative effects of FGM and early forced marriages as well. The women groups made people understand thus parents agreed not to subject their daughters to the harmful practice of circumcision as well as forcing them to get married at their early ages[25]. The women group ensured that those people who performed the FGM on girls stopped the exercise since they educated them on the harm the exercise causes to the young girls. The people who practiced the exercise vowed to end their work and instead focus on other useful activities that would not result ton early deaths.

Women groups for them to succeed in ending domestic violence and other forms of violence worked together with men. The groups would not be successful if they failed to involve the men.  Women groups ensured men worked in support of women leadership in the communities since earlier on leadership positions were entirely entitled to men. Women groups used various strategies in ensuring men were engaged in prevention measures based on fight against gender violence. Men organizations which were and still used in fight against gender violence include the military, men sports team, the police and trade unions as well[26]. The women groups performed campaigns that ensured male role models were used to educate other people on the importance of ending violence against women. The White Ribbon Campaign is one of the campaigns that encourage men and young boys in ensuring they fight against domestic violence as well as other forms of violence. The campaign started in Canada and has spread over 45 African countries where men are asked not to remain silent on the issue of domestic violence against women. The women organizations ensured they use the media and technology in fighting against women violence. The women organizations through the media taught people on the quality of reporting violence cases and increased awareness on the general public on causes and intended consequences of violence against women. Women were asked to report violence cases to the police since violence is a violation of women rights which are part of the human rights. The media was used since it would reach wide ranges of people thus ensure the women groups succeed in the fight against domestic violence. For instance the women groups used music videos in creating awareness on the issue of violence against women.

Women groups have used mass media, print media and social media in ensuring they fight against gender violence. The women groups have succeeded since through use of the internet information reaches wide ranges of people. Through use of the media women groups have promoted public safety in ensuring the issue of violence against women is discussed[27]. Through discussing the issue people are able to come up with ideas and solutions to the violence which is a global concern. The women groups urge women to remain open and discuss their problems in order to get solutions. Most women suffer domestic violence in silence since they fear opening up. The women groups discourage women to suffer in silence thus urge them to report cases of injustice and any type of violence for them to get help. Women are important people in the society thus need to be treated as important people who ensure communities are able to survive and run smoothly. Women are currently enrolled in schools and this has reduced chances of them getting violated. Women now go to school thus know their rights since the women organizations pushed for women to enroll themselves in schools. The girl child currently is educated unlike in the past therefore understanding the rights they are subjected to[28]. Through education women are able to understand that they are equal compared to men and that they are not inferior. Education has been an important factor in ensuring domestic violence is stopped amongst women. Educated women are respected by men therefore are not subjected to violence since they cannot remain silent compared to those who are not educated.

Conclusion

As this study has shown violence against women has been a global concern thus has not affected African countries alone. Domestic violence has been seen to affect many women physically and emotionally subjecting women to traumas and early deaths. Domestic violence is harmful to the lives of women and is a violation of women’s rights which are human rights. This study shows how women movements have been useful in ensuring domestic violence is eradicated though they have faced different challenges. Domestic violence cases are still reported not only in African countries but globally as well regardless of the preventive measures put in place by different states and women groups. Despite different efforts by the women groups, domestic violence still takes place and posses as a threat to many lives in women especially those living in Africa. Domestic violence takes place in different forms all over the world therefore more efforts need to be carried out by the women groups and governments in order to eradicate this harmful vice of violating women rights. The United Nations has joined women organizations in ensuring violence is eradicated not only in Africa but globally as well. The UN has been involved in ensuring domestic violence as well as other forms of violence are addressed and solutions to the problem identified. More strategies need to be put in place thus women organizations need more funds in order to fight against women violence.

Promoting gender equality and ending domestic violence should not be treated as an option but should be given priorities since it claims lives of innocent women, children and young girls. The issue not only needs attention from the women groups but also attention from the national, regional, local and international levels. Women groups have come up in support of women rights and fight against domestic violence and other types of discrimination and exploitation. Women organizations and movements ensure women are made aware of their rights and educated on measures of reporting those who violate their rights. The campaigns are initiatives of women movements who push the government to ensure that women are respected and that preventive measures are put in place in order to combat violence against women. Looking at an international level, violence against women was addressed by the United Nations since it was an important issue that needed immediate action and prevention measures carried out. The women organizations had dealt with some violence such as women trafficking for prostitution therefore the UN came in support of what the women organizations had began. Violence against women has been reported and documented by different bodies such as the UN, different media houses and organizations that have received violence cases. Acts of violence against women are well documented since violence cases continue to be reported especially in African countries. Most women are seen to persevere to the abuse since they are not able to report since the community and family endorses some forms of the domestic violence. Some women go through verbal abuse where they are insulted by men therefore end up suffering from traumas. Therefore domestic violence needs to be addressed further so that it can be eradicated fully.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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