Saudi Arabia’s Legal Weaknesses in the Management of Non-Hazardous Solid Waste Compared to other GCC Countries

 

 

TABLE OF CONTENTS

 

 

( the weaknesses in the waste management law in Saudi Arabia in comparison with G.G.C Golf corporation countries- UAE,Oman,Bahrin,Qater,Kuwait )  

 

CHAPTER 1

1. Overview of non-hazardous waste management in Saudi Arabia:

1)Waste Generation

A- analysis of most prominent components nonhazardous waste

B- factors contributing to the increasing

2) waste disposal

A- collecting

B- disposing

C- Incarnation

D- The mechanism of disposal

CHAPTER 2

1. Existing Laws and Regulations on Non-hazardous solid waste in (K.S.A) :

1)  Environmental laws

2)   Sharia law

3)    Royal Decrees

4)   Ministerial Decrees

5) current legal practices waste management

CHAPTER 3

1) Waste generation by GCC countries:

A- Classification of waste into hazardous and nonhazardous waste types

B- Describe what materials can be classified under nonhazardous type

C- Nonhazardous waste generated by GCC countries. Its Composition and percentage of each component through tables

D- Municipal Waste Kg/Capita/day for each GCC country through tables

 

2) Disposal of nonhazardous waste by GCC countries

A-Discuss various disposal methods of solid waste by GCC countries compared to those in Saudi Arabia

 B-Waste Handling and Separation

C- Collection, Transport and Transfer of Solid Wastes

D- Final Disposal: Landfill

E- Geographical distribution of landfills sites and their design technicalities to handle each waste type

F- Recycling of plastic waste

 

3- The environmental impact of current disposal methods

A- Human toxicity potential

B- Abiotic depletion potential indicators

C- Acidification potential indicators

CHAPTER 4

• Modern approaches in waste management practices in KSA in comparison to GCC countries and related enforcing laws.

A-Anaerobic digestion; Shifting from dumping to engineered landfill systems.

1. Biogas up-gradation
2. Methane conversion to methanol (Liquid fuel)

B Pyrolysis: converting plastic waste into liquid fuel

1. Value-added products of pyrolysis 
2. Catalytic pyrolysis: emphasis on Saudi Arabian natural zeolite

2 Needs for Plastic Recycling in KSA

A-Regulations and initiatives for recycling

B-Life Cycle Assessment of Recycled Plastics

C-Challenges resulting from vast urban developments and unsustainable lifestyle

CHAPTER 5

Solid Waste Management Challenges in KSA and GCC

• Key Challenges

A-Challenges posed by solid waste to governments and communities

B- Lack of solid waste management framework

C- Ineffective legislative framework for solid waste management

D- Inadequate waste management infrastructure

• The need for sustainable development agenda in solid waste management

A-Regulations standards and framework for sustainable solid waste management

B- Recycling initiatives

C- Waste strategies/management infrastructure

CHAPTER 6

 The Supreme Council of the GCC countries and its reforms related to MSW

1- Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC)

• political and economic alliance of six Middle Eastern countries

(Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, the United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Bahrain, and Oman)

• The purpose of the GCC is to achieve unity among its members based on their common objectives and their similar political and cultural identities, which are rooted in Arab culture.
• Legal cooperation and responsibilities of the Supreme Council

  2-   Construction and Demolition debris (C&D) as major component of municipal solid waste and its relation to the rising trend in reconstruction or expansion of the road transportation network, and construction, renovation, demolition of old structures, and reconstruction or expansion of the road transportation network

3- The Basel Convention on the Control of Trans boundary Movements of Non-Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal of 1989

Chapter 7

Proposals for the Legal Reforms to support Improved Waste Management

1. Discuss Opportunities in the market of waste management in KSA

A- Recycling as a means of diversifying sources of revenue

B- Stimulating international companies to invest in waste management in KSA

C- Outsourcing waste management to foreign companies will reduce financial burden of government

 

2. Legal recommendations

A- Increase public and industrial awareness regarding transportation and disposal of municipal waste

B- Need for clearly defined laws on waste management

C- Clearly defined organizational structure and authority differences allowing local municipal councils to be independent

D- Greater diversion rate of landfills, using it as basic criterion of EIA and placing burial at the bottom of waste management hierarchy

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Chapter 1: overview of the waste management in Saudi Arabia and its weaknesses.

 

Waste Generation:

 

Introduction

      Waste generation is a major social and environmental problem. There are many different kinds of waste produced, each having a different impact on the surroundings and adverse effects on human health. In addition, Waste can be hazardous and non-hazardous, depending upon its effects on the environment and health of living beings. Moreover, waste streams can be divided into two main types, streams made of materials (such as plastic or metals) and streams that are made of certain products (such as electronic waste or end-of-life vehicles) which require specific treatment and ultimately feed into materials-related streams[1] . In addition, non-hazardous waste includes plastic, glass, wood, paper, metals, and chemicals, as well as other waste materials generated by commercial, agricultural, residential, and industrial sources. Even though these wastes are categorized as non-hazardous, their improper management poses significant threats to the environment and human health[2]. However, Waste generation can be defined as "the weight or volume of materials and products that enter the waste stream before recycling, composting, landfilling, or combustion takes place"[3] .

   The waste life cycle starts with waste being generated either on land or on water. Therefore, waste generation rate is directly proportional to the rate of consumption, population growth, industrialization, economic growth, and other factors. However, urbanization is one of the primary reasons for the enormous waste generation. Because of, the promise of job, prosperity, and better living standards pulls people out of the villages and small towns into cities leading to a large population in urban areas. For further illustration, the More the number of people in a field the more the consumption of goods and products.as a result, the rate of waste generation will increase based on the increase on the consumption. Worth to be mentioned, In Saudi Arabia (KSA) along with all the reasons mentioned above, another major cause of waste generation is a large number of pilgrims every year. Thus, municipal solid waste (MSW) streams and types vary based on the factors and sources which produce it.

 

 

 

 

 

The Volume for the most prominent Components of Non-hazardous Solid Waste Generated in Saudi Arabia

Roadmap:

 

  This section will provide an overview of waste generation in KSA. It first defines the various categories of non-hazardous waste, and then describes and classifies distinct wastes into those categories. It then explores waste volume, representing the volume of different types of waste, explaining the major causes of an increase in the rate of generation.

 

      The composition and streams of MSW that is received at the dumping site vary based on the source, and society[4]. However, the most prominent streams and components are food waste, plastic waste, medical waste, construction waste, electronic waste, and textile waste.

 

              To begin with, food waste is the most significant MSW stream because it comprises about 50.6% of the total amount of M.S.W organic waste which comprises 40%[5]. Therefore, food waste plays a vital part in the management of MSW. Nonetheless, the high level of food waste is connected to misbehavior, which is associated with the Arab community's many traditions and cultural beliefs. Therefore, the government is required to improve public awareness to curb food waste in KSA[6]. Because, high food waste volumes call for strict laws and regulations to combat such challenge. For instance, the United States' agriculture department (USDA), in collaboration with Environmental Protection Agency (E.P.A.), announced a reduction of food waste and loss in September 2015, and they aim at a 50% reduction by the year 2030[7]. Unfortunately, the Ministry of Municipality and Rural Affairs (MOMRA) has not set goals pertaining to high food waste reduction. Thus, it is time for K.S.A. to focus on eliminating the problem mentioned above through effective governmental strategies. All stakeholders, including the government, the public, and other non-governmental organizations, should concentrate on creating efficient approaches and concepts to reduce food waste and manage non-hazardous solid waste.

 

   Plastic is the second largest M.S.W. stream with a 5-17% proportion[8]. It is important to note that the M.S.W. stream above imposes a significant threat across the world. According to the World Bank approximately 242 million tons of plastic wastes are produced globally[9]. Notably, this amount jeopardizes the economy, environment, as well as people's health. With that said, K.S.A. uses conventional methods to manage plastic wastes[10]. For example, the country collects different elements of the stream and dumps them in landfills without sorting or recycling[11].  However, (MOMRA) has initiated a plan to recycle plastic waste operations in Riyadh city to improve the waste management system as well as benefit from the components of this stream[12]. Even though, KSA is one-step ahead, the recycling strategy has not been fully implemented on a geographical level. Thus, scholars consider the country's waste management law weak because environmental threats still exist[13]. For example, in the COVID-19 pandemic, the failure to control it at its early stages caused difficulty in controlling it on its later stages, let alone the continuous harm, which would continue after this pandemic is solved. Thus, the K.S.A. government needs to implement the suggested recycling program to help in improving waste management techniques, which, in turn, saves the environment in general.

 

 Medical waste is the third MSW that affects K.S.A. Different health centers and hospitals produce up to 39419 tons of medical waste yearly[14]. With that said, the stream above can be categorized into general waste, infectious, hazardous, and radioactive waste.  Firstly, general medical waste consists of materials that are used for real purposes in different hospitals. The materials mentioned above include typical and household items. Secondly, infectious waste comprises the trash that can cause infections to the people if not correctly disposed of. These wastes consist of human tissues, blood, and other contaminated materials, which can contribute to infectious diseases to human beings[15]. It is important to understand that medical waste can be hazardous because of their danger to people. In fact, these materials include some chemical containers, sharp surgical items, and other objects that can cause harm if not disposed of properly. Lastly, radioactive wastes are considered the most dangerous in this group[16]. If not well monitored and eliminated, radioactive wastes risky radiations that harm human beings, plants, as well as animals[17]. Thus, considering a large number of medical facilities and various types of hazardous medical waste in the country is essential. Therefore, KSA needs to come up with a comprehensive health waste management program that monitors and eliminates these wastes. People should understand that the dangers caused by the streams mentioned above decrease the quality of life, which requires from KSA to improve its environmental and waste management laws.

 

 Construction waste is the fourth prominent M.S.W. stream. This stream comprises debris produced during the construction, renovation as well as demolition of buildings, roads, and bridges. Research indicates that the waste mentioned above jeopardizes the environment and the waste management system[18]. For instance, debris from buildings and road construction makes the environment ugly and undesirable. What is more, wastes from construction materials can hurt people. Notably, The Gulf Cooperation Countries (G.C.C.) consistently ranks among the top 10% of per capita waste producers in the world[19]. It is essential to comprehend that approximately 120 million tons of wastes are produced in G.C.C. annually, which is categorized into 55% construction and demolition (C&D) waste, 20% municipal solid waste (M.S.W.), 18% industrial waste, and 7% hazardous waste[20]. Like other G.C.C. nations generate massive amounts of MSW, C&D waste, and industrial waste. A study that was conducted to examine 81 construction companies in the Eastern Province of KSA determined various factors that critically affect the sustainable management of C&D waste in the country. The research found that in the studied firms, only 39.5% of them had a pollution control plan for their projects[21].What is more, it was determined that 13.6% of C&D waste is recycled and reused every year, whereas the remaining 86.4% C&D waste eventually goes to the landfills[22]. Thus, it is noteworthy that most of the C&D waste in the country is a promising source of potential recyclable construction materials, such as gravel from debris, metals, and sand. However, the materials, as mentioned above, will fulfill the requirements of gravel and metal production of the KSA as well as solve the waste disposal issues along with generating considerable economic benefits[23]. Nevertheless, the country needs to concentrate on different factors that influence construction waste management practices to accomplish the goal of sustainable construction waste management. Also, K.S.A. should apply advanced methods to deal with construction waste, including on-site disposal, using the portable stone crusher, and or carry them to the construction waste treatment plant[24]. Therefore, the high volume of construction waste can be useful if the country determines effective strategies to handle it. In simple terms, the government should understand that adequate and efficient techniques are vital because construction waste can be harmful not dealt with properly.

 

 Electronic waste is the fifth prominent MSW stream. As a matter of fact, e-waste comprises of electronic products, including computers, television, and cell phones[25]. Due to the advancement of technology in the modern world, this type of waste has substantial threats because of its fast growth[26]. Notably, the electronic sector faces continuous innovation and improvement in technology, which contributes to the dangerous disposal of outdated devices and machines. On the same note, electronic waste can lead to different health challenges; for instance, the emission of harmful radiations is associated with cancer and other severe chronic disorders[27]. KSA produces five million tons of electronic waste, which heightens the volume of this waste up to 25% per year[28]. Hence, KSA needs to redouble its efforts and develop effective strategies as well as initiatives to recycle electronic waste[29]. For example, according to the National Conference of State Legislatures, Best Buy stores recycle old mobile phones, computers, and T.V.s while Staples stores recycle old mobile phones[30]. On the same note, at last, 25 states have legislated recycling programs for electronic waste. The programs mentioned above, and initiatives play a vital role in helping to diminish the volume of e-waste[31]. What is more, the strategies help the county benefit from recycled e-waste products. Therefore, adopting such programs in KSA will help in combating the adverse effects of e-waste products and assist in strengthening the waste management system.

 

 Textile waste is the last most prominent MSW stream. This stream of waste consists of 6.4% of the total available MSW[32]. Despite, the low percentage of textile waste in the MSW stream, mismanaging it can contribute to significant environmental and health problems. Therefore, textile recycling would help in waste management in different ways, including reducing the need for landfill spaces, mitigating the pressure on virgin resources, as well as encouraging the development of the additional market[33]. Following the above benefits, on March 10, 2019, MOMRA approved a plan to increase the usage of recycling programs in textile waste[34]. The plan above aims at not only taking advantage of recycled materials but also saving more spaces in landfills in Riyadh city. Nonetheless, the plan does not cover other major cities in KSA including Dammam, Jeddah, and Mecca. Simply put, MOMRA needs to develop an effective strategy that includes significant cities to overcome the issue of textile waste in the country.

 

Analysis for the volume of the most prominent components of non-hazardous waste generated in Saudi Arabia from environmental and legal perspective:

 

            Based on data given on the volume of the most prominent components of non-hazardous waste management in Saudi Arabia, there is need to advance disposal methods; these methods will assist in managing these volumes and the different types of waste generated in the MSW. Different volumes have been made on the volume of solid waste generated every year in respect to the most prominent components of non-hazardous wastes. In this case, the volume of the MSW collected in Saudi Arabia has been estimated to be increasing in the current years compared to other GCC nations. This being the case there is need for the KSA stakeholders representing the environmental waste management to come up with advanced methods of controlling these volumes. With the aim to manage these volumes there is need to include legal rules and regulations that are necessary to aid environmental management.

            Comparatively, the huge volumes of waste management have emanated from avoidable factors in the society such as, the human habits, human behaviors have highly exceeded since laws imposed in the KSA are less followed. In this case, to manage human behaviors it is important therefore to implement laws and regulations that will assist in controlling food consumption and waste management. Laws based on waste management in KSA works towards improving health safety in the kingdom.[35] It is therefore important to consider law and regulation implemented to enhance environmental improvement.

            In comparison to the volumes of MSW in KSA in respect to the most prominent components and other countries a high call for advanced methods for managing wastes is needed. High volumes of food wastes as represented by 50.6% of the total MSW organic wastes is a high level that demand for management. It is important to understand that waste mismanagement has a very serious environmental effect. Due to high volume of food waste MOMRA should pass law that will assist in regulating food wastage in the Kingdom. Introduction of laws such as ecological solid waste management act can assist in controlling generation, storage, collection, transportation, processing, and disposal of wastes. Through this process the society will be at right position of reducing waste by 50% through 2030 vision.

            Additionally, another prominent component being plastic waste that holds the second rank comprising of 5-17% in proportion have a high impact to human health.[36] In contrast, other GCC nations have a very low rate of plastic wastes as compared to KSA. This being the case the stakeholders in the K.S.A are supposed to implement ways from which plastic waste can be managed. For instance, the MSW governing stakeholder and the kingdom government should legislate law and regulations such as prohibiting use of plastic within the Kingdom. Resident should stop using plastic and instead use boxes instead of bottles.

            On the same case, medical wastes that are very dangerous cover a huge percentage that needs control and management. Research indicates 39419 tons of medical waste is produced yearly from different medical centers.[37] Implementation of laws and regulation will highly assist in mitigating health issues resulted from medical wastes. Considering the amount medical waste produced in hospitals, proper management is needed to prevent infectious diseases. Therefore, the waste management fraternity should implement methods for management purposes. Hospitals may implement an autoclave means to treat biomedical waste.

            Further, through controlling volumes generated by construction waste, the country will be at a better position preventing harm that might be accompanied by construction debris. Moreover, in comparison to other GCC countries it can be attested that a huge amount of construction waste is produced. Thus, KSA stakeholders have a mandate to ensure waste produced in construction sites are managed in the proper way. Construction waste can be controlled through reusing materials.

            Even though advancement in technology is causing people to shift from one electronic to another, there is need to manage the old used electronic. Electronic waste being one of the most prominent components of non-hazardous waste generated in Saudi Arabia, should be controlled as to reduce the amount of waste in KSA. Based on the research, KSA produces five million tons of electronic waste, which heightens the volume of this waste up to 25% per year.[38] It is therefore important to increase the means of managing electronic wastes. The country can introduce means by which the waste management can be controlled which can be done through waste recycling.   

            Textile waste consists of 6.4% of the total waste of the total MSW produced in the Kingdom of South Arabia.[39] In comparison with the other GCC countries, there is need for the KSA to come up with means of controlling waste materials being generated from the textile industries. Nevertheless, the country can also engage in implementing laws that will assist in regulating the amount of waste materials produced from the textile waste. Textile wastes can be management through burning the excess waste. Although burning the waste material can pollute environment, this is a good method that can attribute in reducing textile wastes that causes landfills in the KSA.

            Finally, in totality, large volume of waste mismanagement based on the most prominent components increases chances of hazards in human health as well as environmental dangers represented by poor management. Law implementation is the most effective means of controlling the manner by which waste can easily be controlled in the KSA. Nevertheless, in additional to law and regulations, volumes of MSW can as well be management through implementation of possible solutions such as organizing biogas production programs, implementation of waste-to-energy plans and technologies. With such solutions it will be beneficial to have an effective means of controlling waste in the community.    

   

Conclusion:

KSA is generating vast quantities and types of MSW every year, and with the upward trend in population growth and urbanization, the rate of waste generation is expected to increase. The Kingdom needs to put its focus on this grave issue and lead a public awareness campaign along with strict laws and regulations for improper management of the waste. Kingdom needs to re formulate its legal, prosecution, and management system governing waste management to fill up all the loopholes in the current system. In today's modern and developed world, MSW is regarded as a huge source of valuable products and energy, Countries like KSA have a vast potential to benefit from MSW by recycling and reusing it. Due to abundant portion Food in MSW, the techniques of anaerobic digestion and pyrolysis could prove to be beneficial. The current MSW practices in KSA have become obsolete and proving unsustainable against the Kingdom needs to switch to the modern techniques and new approaches to improve its waste management and to add valuable products and energy into their economy. In simple terms, the K.S.A. government should develop effective initiatives, strategies, plans, programs, and techniques to reduce the amount of waste experienced in the country.

 

 

Waste Disposal:

 

Overview of the Current Practices of Waste Disposal in Saudi Arabia:

  The rate of solid waste generation in KSA is 15.3 Mt/y, while the average price is 1.4kg/capita/d[40]. The solid waste consists of two major components:

• Organic Waste like food comprises of 40% of the total waste from various sources like restaurants, canteen, homes, and hotels, etc.[41]
• Plastic Waste produced from widespread use of disposable items.

Management of solid waste becomes more challenging during the Hajj annual pilgrimage because of theincreased usage of disposable items by the pilgrims. The amount of municipal waste sent to landfill sites located at Buraiman, Jeddah, is 1.5 million tons every year, while during the Hajj days, it becomes as high as 4500 tons/day.[42]

Municipal solid waste in all big cities in KSA is disposed off in a similar manner; collecting waste in large bins placed all around the residential and commercial areas, transporting waste to transfer stations, from where it is ultimately dumped at landfills specific for nonhazardous solid waste. This process is regulated on the legislative level by Local Affairs and Ministry of Municipalities[43]. In contrast, the ground level management is carried out by local municipalities, which includes the whole process from collection, transport, and disposal of waste to landfill sites[44]. The KSA currently generates about 14 million tons of MSW per year with an average of 1.4 kg/capita/day[45].

The MSW wastes of the KSA include 37% organic materials, 28.5% paper, 5.2% plastics, 8.3% mineral, 4.6% glass, 8% wood, 6.4% textile, and 2% others[46]. The above average MSW production rate is the result of the lack of community-wide programs to enrich environmental awareness, and to boost decrease of MSW generation, and to stimulate recycling.[47] Depending on the type of the waste, it can be further sent to incineration plants for combustion or compost facilities for degradation of organic waste like food into compost. Paper, metals and plastics from municipal waste are also extracted by recycling plants. Therefore, accurate information regarding sources, composition, and quantities of wastes is necessary for precise waste management.[48]

 

A.Mechanism of Waste Disposal

Roadmap:

 In this section, various methods for waste disposal will be discussed. It includes the complete process from the collection of waste at the bins, transportation of waste, and final disposal at the dumping sites or landfills. Depending on the type of trash, current practices in KSA of incineration, composting, and recycling will be discussed.

 

Collection of the Solid Waste

      Municipal solid waste is collected in containers of particular sizes, placed throughout the city.  Onsite storage of solid waste is done in containers ranging from approximately 0.25 to 5-meter cube volume capacity. Solid waste is bagged in old shopping bags, bagged in trash cans, or sometimes disposed of in bulk. This type of disposal is a significant contributor to the mixing of different kinds of waste in the onsite storage containers. This improper sorting causes problems at the later stage for the choice of disposal method.

  Second method of collecting MSW is from the onsite storage containers, that a fleet of solid waste collection vehicles, ranging from 5-10-meter cube capacity, carry the waste to transfer stations, which significantly reduces the operational cost. Majority of transfer stations are direct load, with compaction facilities, compacting solid waste to decrease its volume for further transfer. The compacted waste is then transferred to 75-meter cube trailers, which disposes the waste to the landfill site. Advanced transfer stations are under construction. The hazardous waste from hospitals and industries is collected separately and disposed at industrial waste dumps[49].

 

 

Methods of Disposal

• Disposal at landfill sites

 

     Municipal solid waste, collected at transfer stations, is finally disposed of at communal landfill sites. Landfilling refers to construction of well-engineered site, designed specifically to accommodate solid waste and mitigate any environmental impacts like soil, air, and water pollution resulting from dumping.[50]Landfills usually have to safeguard mechanisms like liner systems to prevent contamination of groundwater.

 

Landfills can be categorized as total or modified containment, uncontrolled dump, controlled, and secured release.[51] The choice of the landfill is a complicated task that depends on the type of waste and integration of social, political, environmental, and ecological variables.[52] Although landfill is the least favorable method of choice for disposal of solid waste, its importance cannot be neglected.

Landfills are those areas where waste is retained into the land. Due to rapid industrialization, generation of MSW has amplified. Almost 16% of all rejected MSW is incinerated; the remainder is inclined to landfills. In landfills, the disposal of MSW is related with groundwater contamination, surface water and soils[53]. As a matter of fact, all the landfill sites in Saudi Arabia are government-owned but are operated by private contractors under civil authorities. Therefore, there is high level of bureaucracy, since governmental operations tend to be dealt with in a bureaucracy manner. As a matter of fact, the governmental response to the updates and changes related to the volumes and types of MSW which enter the landfill sites is slow. Therefore, KSA needs to conduct reforms which can ensure the quick response to the changes and updates occur to the volume and types of MSW.

 

 

Decomposition at landfills occurs at two stages:

• Aerobic bacteria act on the waste to remove oxygen, which lasts for week[54].
• Fermentative and hydrolytic bacteria hydrolyze polymers and convert them into amino acids, long chain carboxylic acids and glycerol.[55]

 

Various biological treatment methods such as aerobic, anaerobic, and anoxic processes are used for the removal of biodegradable matter.[56] Landfill sites if not constructed properly can pollute soil by leachates formation.

 

• Composting

 

It involves aerobic degradation of organic solid waste like food waste and plant residues to convert into products useful for agriculture.[57] It’s an effective method to recycle wastes into useful products and reduce environmental impact at waste disposal areas.[58] In agriculture, the use of compost can positively influence the cation exchange capacity of soil, water holding capacity, organic matter status, thus providing nutrients to the plants.

 

Composting is an environmental friendly strategy for organic waste management, but the quality of compost produced by KSA is of low quality as compared to international standards. A recent research study analyzed chemical characteristics of 25 composts[59] produced in KSA and found out that there exists large variability in standards and chemical properties of local post as compared to that of international, which shows that there is need to maintain proper check and balance on the quality assurance procedures in order to convert it into high quality compost.

 

• Incineration

 

     Incineration is a waste treatment process that involves the combustion. It involves the combustion of waste material in a solid waste incinerator, and a type of facility designed and operated at specific conditions.[60] Around 14% of the solid waste is subjected to incineration in KSA. Incineration is carried by large scale industries[61]. Around 65-80% of energy can be recovered from burning waste material and can be used to power thermal power plants, whereas slag residues removed from the furnace can be incorporated in cement to give particular properties, while also reducing the volume of waste to 80%[62]. For example, study showed that if the city of Jeddah used the incineration method, it would produce over 180 MW of electricity, not only that but also it can produce around 11.25 MW, if it used incineration with recycling[63]. Therefore, KSA needs to consider applying such method while dealing with MSW, so it can use the high volume of MSW as a source of energy.

 

 

1. Analysis of Current Disposal Practices

This section of the paper will discuss various current solid waste disposal strategies at every step of the complete process. Specifically, the main areas of discussion will cover improper collection of solid waste and lack of public awareness, and soil and groundwater contamination. Additionally, compost quality due to current disposal practice and air pollution due to incineration practices will also be explored.

• Improper Collection of Solid Waste and Lack of Public Awareness:

Improper collection of solid waste is ubiquitous in developing countries, and its effects can be observed in nearly all these countries[64]. The methods that are applied to collect waste in KSA appear ineffective in several ways. The use of small onsite collection containers, particularly in public places, serve ineffective since they have limited capacity that makes them get filled faster, causing spillage and contamination in the adjacent places[65]. Besides, these containers may not stay in the collection site for extended periods since some people may take them and use them for other purposes. Restaurants and hotels often use massive containers for collection[66]. However, despite their sizes, they still get filled faster since their disposal rate is higher around these places. Eventually, the constant stay of solid waste may create an undesirable experience as they release the filthy smell[67].

Lack of public awareness is the leading cause of improper solid waste collection[68]. Lack of public awareness regarding ways of disposing solid waste contributes to issue associated with improper waste management[69]. The level of people’s understanding and knowledge in this country regarding the importance and implications of certain waste management program is lower. Countries like Germany and Switzerland educate people on how to dispose and handle waste; people are often made aware of separating biodegradable and non-degradable waste[70]. In Germany for example, there are local and municipal agencies that educate people how to sort and dump waste, and supply bins with varied colors to help people easily sort out waste[71]. All forms of glass, including bottles and jars belong to designated bin. Ceramics, china, mirrors and wine corks don not belong to glass bins[72]. Glass are sorted by color. Glass are deposited on bins depending on their color; there are slots for green, brown, and clear glass. Bins for glass are often dotted. People are educated to dump paper and other paper-related products, including cardboards, newspapers, and paper bags in blue bins[73]. Plastic and metallic waste are dumped in waste yellow bins. Bio stuff, including kitchen scraps, peels, and food leftovers are dumped in brown bins, though people with backyard are encourage  to dump them in compost[74]. These educational approaches has enhanced public awareness regarding waste management, and has significantly resulted in proper methods of handling waste and consequently minimizing problems associated with improper waste management[75]. However, Saudi Arabians lack this public awareness as observed in the way most of the residentsfail to have separate bins for organic and inorganic wastes; all types of waste are disposed off and collected at the same collection containers[76]. At places of residence and public institutions, waste is collected at the same collection containers; hospitals illegally dispose of sheets, syringes, diapers in the municipal collection containers, and empty bottles and cans are thrown on the streets[77]. In summary, developing countries, including Saudi Arabia, lack structured and established public awareness programs that serve to educate the general public on effective ways of collecting waste, and this leads to the improper collection of solid waste practice.

 

• Soil and Groundwater Contamination caused by Leachates and Methane Emissions at Landfills:

Soil and groundwater pollution is another significant environmental issue associated with current disposal practices at landfills. Various pollution agents, including solid waste, is one of the leading causes of soil and groundwater contamination[78]. Solid waste results in leachates and methane at landfills that can contaminate the soil. Leachates are regarded as highly a “concentrated soup”: meaning small amount of leachate can contaminate great amount of groundwater. Because leachate contain impurities and other toxic compounds from domestic and industrial waste, it react with groundwater contaminating it with these impurities in the process[79]. The methane gas released from these municipal landfills may react with other compounds in the landfill to form methyl hydroxyls which may percolates into the ground and react with groundwater in the process[80]. The methane gas may also diffuse into the groundwater causing it to haveundesirable smell[81]. Landfills in KSA are regarded as mature landfills, which denotes that they have limited capacity in the approaching years due to the high rate of waste disposal[82]. When these landfills exceed capacity or become a closed landfill, the land where these landfills are located cannot be used for construction since it requires a significant amount of time to refill these pits because there are continuous degrading organic materials[83].

Emission of greenhouse gases is a common occurrence at landfills; landfills serve as the second-largest emitter of greenhouse gases (CO2, CH4, and N2O)[84]. Most of these landfills lack proper ways of tapping these gases before they are released into the atmosphere. Impacts of these gases to the environment are immense; they corrode the ozone layer and react with moisture to cause acid rain, resulting in global warming[85]. When greenhouse gases react with atmospheric moisture to form acidic rain, the rain reaches the ground and seeps in into the deeper layers of the soil until it reaches layers holding the underground water[86]. Since this water percolating is acidic, it react with ground water and contaminates it in the process[87]. Most people still dump waste in non-engineered landfills in KSA, causing groundwater pollution, which may be hazardous to the environment[88]. Landfill sites and wastewater release leachate that directly pollute the soil. Pollution in the soil further results in the pollution of groundwater sources as it percolates down. Additionally, illegal disposal of waste at municipal landfills further exacerbates the issue of soil and groundwater pollution as harmful chemicals, including heavy metals, percolate into the ground posing a great health risk to human health. Therefore, the practice waste disposal at non-engineered landfills results in emissions that directly contaminate soil and groundwater.

 

 

• Low-Quality Compost:

Low-quality compost is another current disposal practice that has a negative impact on the environment. Composts produced in various parts of KSA are often low quality, which often has a harmful effect on the soil properties and, consequently, plant growth[89]. The variables used to determine the compost's quality include organic matter content, carbon to nitrogen ratio, pH, nitrate and ammonium levels, and heavy metals[90]. Poor quality compost can alter the soil pH and temperatures to levels that are not favorable for plant growth[91]. Additionally, poor quality compost does give soil all the necessary nutrients required for optimal plant growth. Most composts in this country are poor quality because all the processes required its production are not correctly followed[92]. Besides, there is tendency where people preparing compost fail to use the right compost materials to generate the compost. For example, they can include papers and clothes in compost instead of using only fruits, vegetables, plant cuttings, and other animal’ wastes that are biodegradable[93]. Doing this adversely affect the quality of the compost as it limit the activity of the soil microbes[94]. Most parts of KSA have desert climate conditions, making most parts of the country unfavorable for agriculture; only 835,000 ha is under crop cultivation[95]. Even though organic farming is highly promoted by various programs, including the 1^st National Regulation and Standards for Organic Agriculture of 2011, its application is still not viable since it is not an effective strategy[96]. Therefore, due to the limited use of composts, most composts may not be prepared in the required procedures, and this can adversely affect its quality.

 

• Air Pollution Due to Incineration :

Air pollution resulting from incineration is another environmental issue associated with current waste disposal practices in KSA. Incinerating to manage solid waste is often criticized since the method results in the emission of pollutant gases, including CO2, CO, N2O, CC12F2, and CH4[97]. Techniques used in incineration, including gasification, pyrolysis, and plasma arc are considered less viable solution to solid waste[98]. Burning plastics and other waste materials released toxic substances such as persistent organic pollutants, heavy metals, and greenhouse gases[99]. Another controversy is due to the fact that it results in solid remnants, including slack and bottom ash, unburned organic matter, and carbon compounds are drawn from incomplete combustion. Persistent organic pollutants released from incinerators may move along the ecological cycle and even reach the ocean threating marine life[100]. Due to these impacts, the process of incineration poses a significant risk to public health and the environment. Healthwise, incineration, create a higher occurrence of cancer and respiratory illnesses. Congenital abnormalities, hormonal defects, and enhanced sex ratio are also potential health effects[101]. In terms of the environment, the process of incineration can result in global warming, eutrophication, photochemical ozone, and acidification. In KSA, incineration is mostly applied in health institutions and some industrial plants[102]. The practice may also be used in certain residential places, though it is not common. At these incinerators, all combustible solid waste are placed at set ablaze using petrol fuel[103]. Remnants from the incinerators are often removed and dumped into landfills[104].

Government structures at the municipal level are often feeble, making the authorities’ role less pronounced. Due to a lack of robust structures, there are violations of standard waste management policies, as stated in KSA's Environmental Law[105]. People oftendispose waste at non-disposal sites illegally, resulting in significant environmental effects despite clear stipulated penalties. In summary, incineration, as one of the current disposal practices, also poses a considerable threat to the environment, particularly by causing casing air pollution.

 

 

 

Conclusion

 

In conclusion, it is reasonably conspicuous to delineate that the aspect of waste generation has turned out to be a critical societal and environmental predicament in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. In essence, there are copious diverse varieties of waste generated, with each occasioning an unlike implication on both the environment and the aspect of human well-being.

Consequently, with regard to the analysis undertaken, the findings have portrayed food waste to be the most significant MSW stream for its estimates are way higher relating to the other factors. For this explicit rationale, the national administration has been advised on enhancing the facet of public cognizance to restrain food waste in the country. The other main factors of plastic wastes, medical wastes, construction wastes, and electronic waste also ought to be dealt with appropriately for they also play an imperative role in the process of waste generation.

Primarily, the obtainable and commendable research undertaken has depicted that the element of waste recycling would offer immediate solutions in the act of managing the waste varieties in diverse techniques such as, decreasing the prerequisite for landfill spaces, lessening the pressure on virgin possessions, besides heartening the expansion of the markets.

Based on the aspect that solid waste comprises of two major components; the organic waste and the plastic waste, the mechanism of waste disposal ought to be imperative for consideration. It is evident that the municipal solid waste in the majority of the major cities in the country is disposed of similarly.  This makes it quite problematic for the administration to attend to the menace suitably. For this reason, there happens to be a prerequisite for information gathering concerning the sources and composition of wastes obligatory for defined management of waste.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CHAPTER TWO

 

 

 

. Existing Laws and Regulations on Non-Hazardous Waste Management in SAUDI ARABIA

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

. Existing Laws and Regulations on Non-Hazardous Waste Management

In this section, we will discuss different laws and regulations for the management of nonhazardous wastes at multiple levels, from environmental laws, Sharia laws, Royal Decrees, Ministerial Decrees, and an international treaty such as Basel Convention. We will discuss their objectives, implementation, and role of concerned authorities regulating their implementation.

 

1. Environmental Laws

In this section, various laws related to environmental protection adopted throughout the time in KSA will be discussed, keeping in view their goals, regulations, standards for waste management, and all the stakeholders subjected to these laws.

 

1. Environmental Standards on Material Recovery and Recycling of Waste 2012[106]

 

According to this law, companies under operation in KSA will have to comply with the new waste treatment and disposal procedures. It also put forward guidance standards for the development of environmental practices for recycling. Although this document doesn't have a direct impact on the industrial sector, it covers international standard waste management hierarchy related to waste prevention, recycling, and disposal. 

 

2. Biological Treatment Standard of 2012[107]

 

According to these standards laid down by the law, all the waste treatment and incineration plants must comply with the updated requirements related to the location, operation, and design of these facilities. It also provides regulations related to the treatment of decomposable solid waste. However, this law gives flexibility to these plants in the implementation, keeping in mind their operation costs. Biological treatment standard applies to both public and private facilities and doesn’t apply to home composting initiatives.

 

3. Standard on Waste Transportation 2012[108]

 

This law ensures compliance of non-hazardous, hazardous and inert waste with the updated regulations for waste transportation in KSA. It was adopted by GAMEP and monitors waste movement to protect environment and human health, defines standard requirements for hazardous materials such as classification and labeling waste to regulate its movement inside and outside KSA. Companies are required to comply with labeling, necessary documentation of the waste, drivers’ certification and training and vehicle safety standards. Main goal of these standards is to prevent accidents and facilitate trans-border movement of wastes and simplify transportation processes.

 

4. Wastewater Discharge Standard of 2012[109]

 

Companies concerned with the discharge of wastewater are subjected to this law, adopted on March 24, 2012. The goal of this law is to enable KSA in reaching to ambient water quality standards by defining specific limits on discharges, enforcing permit requirements to protect water quality. 

 

Government of KSA has formulated various laws ensuring compliance of public and private facilities to modern, up to date standards, establishing guidelines for environment protection practices, safe trans- border transport of hazardous wastes to avoid accidents and proper treatment of waster to protect already scarce water sources.

 

 

1. Sharia Law

Environmental protection is an integral aspect of Islam. According to the Quran, Muslims have been made stewards on Earth, which also enjoins the responsibility for Muslims to play a proactive role in environmental conservation. Muslims are repeatedly encouraged to reflect on the relationship with their surroundings and living beings and maintain ecological balance.

In this section, Sharia Law for the protection of various aspects of the environment will be discussed in the light of Quran and, sayings of Prophet Muhammad ﷺand his companions.

 

1. Resource Conservation

 

The Islamic teachings towards the conservation of natural resources are based mainly on the prohibition of over-exploitation. The Holy Quran says: "It is He who has appointed you viceroys in the earth … that He may try you in what He has given you."[110]

 

“O children of Adam! … eat and drink: but waste not by excess, for Allah loves not the wasters.”[111]

 

Extravagance in the usage of water, whether the water is scarce or abundant, is forbidden by teachings of Prophet Muhammad.It is related[112] that the Prophet passed by his companion, Sa’d, who was washing for prayer, and said:“What is this wastage, O Sa’ d?”

"Is their wastage even in washing for prayer?”, asked Sa’ d;and he said, “Yes, even if you are by a flowing river!”

 

2. Forbidding to Spread Corruption on the Land

 

According to Islam, corruption of land is a broad category that applies to anything disturbing the order and collective systems of Earth, making the life of humans or living things unsustainable. Quran says, "And do not desire corruption in the land. Indeed, God does not like corruptors."[113]

"Eat& drink from the provision of Allah and do not commit abuse on the earth, spreading corruption."[114]

 

 

3. Reduction of Waste by Encouragement to live Simple Life

 

Adopting a simple lifestyle is greatly stressed in Islam with the implications of less waste production at the source. It is mentioned in the Quran,“Do not be extravagant, surely Allah does not like extravagant.”[115]Reduced waste production and input demand of natural resources due to reduced consumption of the products, is a significant step towards environment conservation. Prophet Muhammad ﷺ himself led a simple life and encouraged his companions to do the same.

 

 

 

4. Preserving Forests and Biodiversity

 

One of the significant steps of Prophet Muhammad ﷺ was to afforest an area called “Zuraybu’t Taweel” to protect wildlife. He announced, “Whoever cuts a tree here should plant a new tree instead.” The area shortly converted into a forest with this regulation. Prophet Muhammad ﷺ also granted the status of ‘haram’ (under protection) to an area of 12-mile distance from the center of Medina city and forbade killing animals or cutting trees within its radius.

 

Many sayings of Prophet Muhammad ﷺ encourage planting trees. He said,“If a Muslim plant a tree or grow grains and a bird, a person or an animal eats from it will be counted as a charity for him.”[116]

“If any of you have a date sapling on the doomsday, he should plant it -if possible.”[117]

"Whoever plants a tree is rewarded by Allah as much as the produce is grown in that tree."[118]“Whoever plants a tree and diligently looks after it until it matures and bears fruit is rewarded,”[119]

 

5. Cleanliness

 

When Abu Musa was sent to Al-Basrah as the new governor, he addressed the people saying: “I was sent to you by ‘Umar ibn Al-Khattab in order to teach you the Book of your Lord [i.e. the Qur’an], the Sunnah [of your Prophet], and to clean your streets.”

 

Abu Hurairah reported that the Messenger of Allah ﷺ forbade that a person relieve himself in a water source or on a path or in a place of shade or in the burrow of a leaving creature.  These values highlight Islam’s stress on avoiding pollution of critical resources and importance of cleanliness.Prophet ﷺ stated: “Beware of the three acts that cause you to be cursed: First, relieving yourselves in shaded places (that people utilise), in a walkway or in a watering place……”

“Removing harmful things from the road is an act of charity (sadaqah).[120]”

 

At the time of emergence of Islam in 6th century AD, there weren't any significant environmental issues. But the matter is dealt in Islam in detail. Nevertheless, Islamic Sharia doesn't define specific punishment, and are more left to context dependent implementations as deemed necessary. Islam made cutting down of trees, damaging crops or harming animals war crime even in the intensity of the war. By warning about hell fire for the people cutting down trees without any reason and rewards on planting trees, Islam encouraged its followers towards environmental protection. Punishments in Islam focus on violators of collective systems, disruptors of the natural, balanced order of the Earth.

 

Islamic teachings on protection of environment instill environmental consciousness in its followers. The concern of Islam towards environment is a universal one and transcends all geographical barriers and applies to not only humans but all living beings and ecological systems.

 

 

iii. Royal Decrees

In this section, Royal decrees, the authority of these decrees, and their implementation will be discussed We will also discuss royal decrees for the protection of the environment and its objectives.

A decree is a rule of law, defined according to certain procedures as dictated by the Constitution and issued by the head of the State, which can be the President of a Republic, King or a Monarch. Decrees are comparable to Executive orders issued by President of the United States.

Royal decrees (nizam) are the main source of laws in KSA, issued by the King. However, they are referred to as regulations rather than laws and are subordinate to Sharia.[121] Royal decrees support Sharia in aspects of commercial, corporate, and labor law.[122]

Environmental Act No. 193, promulgated by Royal Decree No. M/34 of 2001[123]

This Act, passed on 28 Rajab 1422 H (15 October 2001), by the Royal Decree, made environmental planning integral part of agricultural, industrial and urban development, stressed on sustainable usage of natural resources, protection of human health from negative effects of environmental threats and increased awareness of public on environmental issues. It defines clearlywhat comes under the category of waste, waste products classified as hazardous, lays out standards for waste generators, waste transporters, hazardous waste management facilities, and standards for hazardous waste management. It also stresses to develop monitoring tools, conduct environmental studies, appropriate training programs to develop capabilities in preserving the environment, apply technologies for the recycling, safe transportation and disposal of construction materials and debris and preventing the disposal of radioactive and hazardous wastes in the territorial waters.

 

Royal decrees give significant authority to the King in KSA in the commercial, corporate, and labor sector but are subordinate to Sharia. Royal decree for environmental protection serves as a road map and guiding foundation for all environmental laws and practices in Saudi Arabia.

 

 

iii. Ministerial Decree

In this section, we will discuss ministerial decrees, the authority figures with the power to implement these decrees, especially those related to conservation of the environment.

A Ministerial Decree is an order issued by the ministry, imposed under the authority of ministry's chief, administrator or secretary, delegating the task to impose a mandate.

In the areas of energy and land, the Royal Family, which occupies all the ministries, have significant authority. These regulations are called ‘lai'hah’ and include Ministerial Resolutions, the council of ministers resolution, royal orders, and Ministerial Circulars.[124]Minister of Environment Water and Agriculture of KSA issued ministerial decrees to protect the environment that include Saudi Organic Agriculture Law & by-Law, National Aquaculture Policies and Practices, National Biosecurity Manual, and Saudi Code for Responsible Aquaculture Practices.[125]

Most of the ministries in KSA are managed by the members of the Royal family, supervised by the King. Minister of Environment Water and Agriculture issues ministerial decree related to the preservation of the environment. 

 

 

1. Basel Convention on the Control of Trans-boundary Movement of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal

In this section, we will discuss the Basal convention, parties, and main objectives of the convention. We will also discuss what is known as Toxic Colonialism, which leads to this convention.

Basel Convention is a United Nations treaty signed on 22nd March 1989 in Basel, Switzerland, by 187 parties[126]including Saudi Arabia and 53 signatories.[127] It was designed to prevent the transfer of hazardous waste from developed to developing countries. The convention also defined hazardous wastes and stressed on minimizing toxic wastes as much as possible at the source of generation to assist developing countries in the management of waste.

 

History

During the 1970s, strict environment laws raised the cost of hazardous waste treatment and disposal. Due to globalization, the movement of ships in the international waters increased. The developing world was also desperate for foreign currency, which leads the developed world to dispose of toxic waste to the developing world, a practice known as 'Toxic Colonialism'.

Around 4% of hazardous wastes that come from countries are shipped across international borders. These wastes include, among others, chemical waste, radioactive waste, municipal solid waste, asbestos, incinerator ash, and old tires.[128]

 

The increasing cost of hazardous waste disposal in the developed world and the need for foreign currency in the developed world lead to Toxic Colonialism. This led to the Basel Convention to reduce the movement of toxic waste from developed to developing countries.

 

1. Analyzing the Role of Legal Authorities in KSA in Solid Waste Disposal

The inefficiency of the bureaucratic system to resolve developmental issues is very obvious for some time as the municipalities even fail to provide simple services such as waste management, let alone the ability to implement government's grand developmental and administrative plans for Vision 2030. The infrastructure problem in cities of KSA remains unresolved, as reflected in the failure of complex organizational structures at local levels and significant overlap of legal authorities of various bodies of the government. These bodies at times are dysfunctional and ineffective, partly because they do not conform to the Kingdom's social and demographic changes as they haven't been reformed since the 1980s. 

 

In 1992, the Law of the Provinces was formalized, with the aim to improve administrative structure and development in Saudi Arabia[129]. Exploiting the authority laid down by the law, the crown started to appoint ‘Emirs’ (governors) from the members of the royal family to consolidate the federal power over the management of the provinces. The appointed emirs, belonging to foreign regions of the country, weren't equipped with the right knowledge to understand the local issues of the area, with a lack of interest in solving them, failed to coordinate with local tribal networks for the implementation of developmental projects. There is also a lack of accountability by the crown of these emirs.[130]

 

The regional government structure in KSA is managed by the Ministry of Interior. KSA is divided into thirteen emaras (regions), assisted by the regional council, and administered by an appointed Emir, which reports to the Ministry of Interior. The region's governorates are managed by the governors that report to the Emir.[131]

 

MOMRA runs parallel, a duplicate structure at the municipal level. Each province's capital has an amanah (secretariat), which is a bureaucratic body that manages the other cities and towns of the province. MOMRA also supervises hundreds of municipalities, responsible for many municipal functions like solid waste management. The budget of secretariat and municipalities is approved by Municipal Councils, which have no say in how the services will be provided and the use of public land. This authority is given to concerned ministries, secretariat, development authorities appointed by Council of Ministers, even to ARAMCO, Saudi State-owned company.

 

At the most level, various government institutions are involved in delivering services, including the Council of Economic and Developmental Affairs (CEDA), various project management offices mandated by Vision 2030, crown, and the diwan. All these bodies have a significant area of overlap in terms of their responsibilities, often bypassing and competing with each other.

 

With such a tangled national and local government structure, which is itself regulated by laws issued by various ministries, these bodies compete for power, resources, and representation, as well as there is lack of clarity over their legal authority and hierarchy. As a result, local bureaucrats lack the funding to work on effective waste management. In a rare event, Saudi Council criticized MOMRA for failure to carry developmental projects.[132] There has been shifting of blame for the failure between Emir, municipality, ARAMCO and contractors in response to recent flooding in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia’s largest city.[133] In another example, the government slashed the budget allocated for regional projects, shifting the resources to General Entertainment Authority. Local authorities that are at direct contact with population needs and demands are often given very limited funding, with their resources allocated for cultural festivals.[134]

 

Although Vision 2030 directs municipal and local bodies to carry out planning and implementation of various developmental projects it lacks any clear policy on reforming bureaucratic structures to decentralize authority and power to local bodies[135]. Due to this labyrinth of authority structures, the licensing procedures for various stages in waste management are complicated because of multiple license issuing authorities.

Hazardous waste landfills require specialized treatment before they are disposed of. There is little monitoring on the waste composition dumped at the collection and transfer stations, and landfills. Hazardous waste is often dumped at Municipal landfills designed specifically designed for municipal solid waste[136], which leads to the release of toxic materials in the soil and pollute groundwater. Illegal dumping is common around the Kingdom, with several uncontrolled waste dumps in use. There is a low percentage of landfill diversion due to a lack of incentives to the private sector for the recycling of wastes. 

The cost of disposal outside industrial cities is high due to large transport distances, as the cost of transportation of waste is included in the landfill cost. There is a lack of geographical coverage of treatment facilities and a lack of government control over the facilities falling outside the industrial cities.

Staff involved in waste management services is inadequate, are poorly trained, and lack the necessary qualifications to manage the process. There is a lack of awareness among citizens and manufacturers for waste handling, which leads to improper sorting and illegal dumping. There is no central database to track the quality and quantity of industrial waste produced and the lack of prosecutions of those involved in violation due to corruption.

 

 

1. Legal Authorities in Charge of Solid Waste Disposal
2. Municipal Councils in KSA and their Role in Solid Waste Management

History

Municipal Councils in KSA are local administration bodies which include Amara Governate and rest of local units, regulated by their respective central ministries. Established by legislative constitution, they form the first tier of the government and concerned authority figures that deal with local issues. Law of Municipality of Makkah and other Municipalities, 1954, called for the formation of municipal councils in a bid to encourage the participation of the local community in government, with elected members from the general public. In 1977, the Law of Municipalities and Villages was issued that reiterated the need for establishing Municipal Councils. It also defined their organizational structure, composition, and responsibilities related to certain municipal functions, empowering them to implement specific duties on the community level.

 

Organizational Structure

Municipal Councils are semi-autonomous bodies, with an equal number of elected and appointed members. Minister of Municipal and Rural Affairs (MOMRA) appoints the mayor, and a chairman and its deputy are elected by the majority of council members for a period of two years. Decisions of the councils are made by vote majority while the final authority to approve those decisions fall on MOMRA.

 

Municipal Functions and Responsibilities

The responsibilities of Municipal Councils are defined by the Law of Municipalities and Villages. The Councils are responsible for organizing the area according to the endorsed plan and issuing permits for the construction of the infrastructure and the buildings, ensuring the general management, including waste management done effectively. Municipal functions also include protecting public health by clearing all swamps and disposal of wastewater effectively. They also preserve cleanliness and city appearance by effective waste disposal methods. The location of slaughterhouses is important as during the festival of Eid ul Adha, large quantities of animal waste, contribute to significant organic waste. Municipal Council also builds and organizes the slaughterhouses to prevent mismanagement in handling animal waste. Implementing vision 2030 through waste management programs for sorting waste, collection, and disposal to municipal landfills is also the responsibility of Municipal Councils. On a local level, waste management, from collection, transport, and placement at landfills, is primarily the responsibility of regional Municipal Councils regulated by Local Affairs and Ministry of Municipalities.  These municipalities operate landfills through private contractors.

2. Legal Authorities and Duties of the Saudi Government on Waste Management on Federal Level

 

General Authority for Meteorology and Environmental Protection  Regulates environmental protection laws and is the top authority body supervising all the environmental projects. It also monitors the progress of Municipal Councils and formulates environmental principles serving as a guideline for all public and private agencies in KSA. On these guidelines, the implementation of laws and their progress is assessed. 

 

The Saudi Authority for Industrial Cities and Technology Zones  , also known as MODON is a government body created by KSA in 2001, which is responsible for the regulation of Technology Zones and Industrial Estates. It also encourages the private sector to get involved in the development of Industrial Estates. MODON has established up to 35 industrial cities under its program, including MODON Oases (industrial cities for women workers) and oversees their organization. Various new industrial cities are under development in various parts of the Kingdom. MODON supervises the operational and underdevelopment cities. It ensures that the environmental laws set by GAMEP are implemented through inspection of industries for keeping up with environmental standards and subjecting penalties for violation of these standards. MODON also provides non-hazardous waste collection services for factories and their disposal in municipal landfills, making coordination and monitoring much more accessible.

 

The Royal Commission for Jubail and Yanbu, or simply known as RCJY, is an autonomous administrative and financially independent organization, governed by the Board of Directors, reporting directly to the Council of Ministers. The Chairman's Office in Riyadh makes policies and supervises the implementation of policies through the Directorates General in Yanbu and Jubail. RCJY aims to diversify the economy and decrease the dependence of KSA on the oil exports for GDP, through the development of industrial cities of Jubail and Yanbu. It supervises the operations in industrial cities, ensuring they are environmentally friendly and also regulates the industrial waste sector independently through r[1]Environmental Standards on Material Recovery and Recycling of Waste. Presidency of Meteorology and Environment, 2012. https://www.pme.gov.sa/en/En_EnvStand1.pdf.

 

[1], Biological Treatment and Standard of 2012, (KSA: Presidency of Meteorology and Environment, 2012), https://www.pme.gov.sa/en/En_EnvStand11.pdf.

[1], Standard on Waste Transportation, (KSA: Presidency of Meteorology and Environment, 2012), https://www.pme.gov.sa/en/En_EnvStand15.pdf.

 

[1], Waste Water Discharge Standard of 2012, (KSA: Presidency of Meteorology and Environment, 2012), https://www.pme.gov.sa/en/En_EnvStand17.pdf.

 

[1]The Qur'an 6:165

[1]The Qur'an 7:31

[1]Ibn Majah , Book of Purity, Sunan Ibn Majah, Sahih Musnad Ahmed (851)

[1]The Qur'an 28:77

[1]The Qur'an 2:60

[1]The Qur'an 6:141

[1]Khatib Al-Tabrizi, Al-Bukhari, Al-Muslim, Mishkat al-Masabih (n.d)

[1]Muhammad Al-Bukhari, p. 138, Al-Adab al-Mufrad (Beirut: Daru'l-Ma'rife, n.d)

[1]Ahmad B. Hanbal, p. 415, Volume 5, Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal (n.d)

[1]Ahmad B. Hanbal, p. 374, Volume 6, Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal (n.d)

[1]Abu Zakariya Yaḥya Ibn-Šaraf an- Nawawī and F. A. Matraji, Narrated by Abu Dharr Al-Ghafari, Riyadh Us-saliheen (1998)

[1]James R. Silkenat, Jeffrey M. Aresty, and Jacqueline Klosek, The ABA Guide to International Business Negotiations: A Comparison of Cross-cultural Issues and Successful Approaches (Chicago, Illinois: American Bar Association, 2009)

[1]Otto and Jan Michiel, "Sharia Incorporated: A Comparative Overview of the Legal Systems of Twelve Muslim Countries in Past and Present," 2010

[1], General Environmental Regulations and Rules for Implementation, (Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Presidency of Meteorology and Environment, 2001)

[1]Doing Business in Saudi Arabia, (Latham & Watkins LLP, 2012), https://www.lw.com/upload/pubContent/_pdf/pub3507_1.pdf.

[1]"GAMEP Rules And Regulations," last modified May 8, 2019, https://mewa.gov.sa/en/InformationCenter/DocsCenter/RulesLibrary/Pages/default.aspx.

[1]"Parties to the Basel Convention," Basel Convention, accessed February 29, 2020, https://www.basel.int/Countries/StatusofRatifications/PartiesSignatories/tabid/4499/Default.aspx.

[1]"Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal," United Nations Treaty Collection, accessed February 29, 2020, https://treaties.un.org/pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XXVII-3&chapter=27&lang=en.

 

[1], "The transboundary shipments of hazardous wastes," International Trade in Hazardous Wastes, 1998, xx, doi:10.4324/9780203476901.ch4.

[1]“The Royal Embassy of Saudi Arabia,” Law of the Provinces, accessed March 8, 2020, https://www.saudiembassy.net/law-provinces)

[1]Hadi Fathallah, “Failure of Regional Governance in Saudi Arabia,” Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, July 26, 2018, https://carnegieendowment.org/sada/76928)

[1]“The Royal Embassy of Saudi Arabia,” Provincial System | The Embassy of The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, accessed March 8, 2020, https://www.saudiembassy.net/provincial-system-0)

[1]“أعضاء-في-الشورى-وزارة-الشؤون-البلدية-هدر-على-الدولة,” Al Hayat, n.d., http://www.alhayat.com/article/917821/)

[1]Author: Arab News, “'Municipality Responsible for Flood',” Arab News, December 6, 2009, https://www.arabnews.com/node/330734)

[1]Agence France-Press, “Saudi Arabia to Spend Billions on Expanding Entertainment Sector,” The Guardian (Guardian News and Media, February 23, 2018), https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/feb/23/saudi-arabia-to-spend-billions-on-expanding-entertainment-sector)

[1]“GOVERNANCE MODEL FOR ACHIEVING SAUDI ARABIA'S VISION 2030,” Governance | Saudi Vision 2030, accessed March 8, 2020, https://vision2030.gov.sa/en/governance)

[1]“ ArRiyadh’s Comprehensive Waste Management Strategy," ArRiyadh’s Comprehensive Waste Management Strategy (2016))

egulations and standards. RCJY also stimulates the private sector to invest in the recycling of industrial waste and disposing of non-recyclable waste in RCJY landfills.

Conclusion

Municipal Solid Waste in KSA mostly consists of organic waste like food and plastic waste, mainly consisting of disposable items, which particularly increases during the hajj days. Solid waste is collected at onsite storage containers, with improper sorting due to lack of public and industrial awareness, from where the waste is transported to transfer stations, which after compaction, is loaded in trailers to be carried at disposal landfill sites. The process is regulated by municipalities operating under Local Affairs and Ministry of Municipalities, whereas central bodies concerned with legislation include GAMEP, MODON, and RCJY formulate laws and set guideline standards for environmental protection. Various waste disposal methods are employed depending on the nature of the waste. Disposal at non-engineered landfill sites, owned by the government and operated by private contractors, is the common disposal method. Non-hazardous solid waste is handled specifically at municipal landfills, which are running out of their storage capacities. Decomposition at landfills produces leachates that pollute the soil, which percolates through the porous ground of KSA to pollute underwater resources. Greenhouse emissions at landfill sites pollute the air. Composting converts solid organic waste into useful products for agriculture. However, the compost is of low quality, and the agricultural area is quite less, making the approach ineffective. Incineration of solid waste significantly reduces its volume, but it also produces the air by releasing greenhouse gases, and the bottom ash contains unburned organic matter. Laws and regulations on non-hazardous waste in KSA exist on many levels. Various environmental laws like Environmental Standards on Material Recovery and Recycling of Waste, Biological Treatment Standard, Standard on Waste Transportation and Waste Water Discharge Standard ensure the compliance of industries to new waste treatment and disposal practices, issuing guidance standards for best practices, classification, and labeling of the waste, preventing accidents and facilitating the trans-border movement of wastes and regulating discharges to maintain water quality. However, these laws are not effectively implemented; illegal disposal and mixing of hazardous with non-hazardous waste are common problems. Environmental protection is greatly stressed in Islam by a number of verses of Quran, sayings of Prophet Muhammad, and their companions by conservation of resources by minimizing waste and discouraging consumer attitude, the prohibition of overexploitation of resources, and spreading corruption on the land. Islam also stresses on the forestry and protection of biodiversity, and maintaining the cleanliness of surroundings and preventing contamination of water resources. The punishments for violating the environment are context-dependent, depending on the severity of the problem. Royal and Ministerial Decrees in KSA related to environment ensure making environmental planning integral part of development process, defining waste, and hazardous and non-hazardous waste, formulating standards for waste generators, transporters and waste management facilities, conduct environmental studies, conduct training programs. Basel Convention is an international treaty signed by 187 parties with the goal to stop the transport of hazardous waste to the developingworld.There is a significant area of overlap between various government bodies in Saudi Arabia, competing for representation and power. Local bureaucratic structures have little budget for the implementation of waste management projects. Illegal dumping is widespread, and there is a lack of qualified personnel for waste management. There is a need for clarity in government structure and strict action against violation of waste management standards.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CHAPTER 3

 

The waste managament for the non hazardous waste in GCC countries

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Chapter 2 

 

1. Waste generation in GCC countries

Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) is a regional cooperation between six countries; Bahrain, UAE, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Oman and Qatar. GCC member states are among the top 10 per capita waste generators in the world.[137] These countries share similar geography, history, culture and modernization practices, with common factors contributing to increasing solid waste generation. These factors include population and economic growth, and rapid urbanization.  The main contributor of waste in GCC countries is construction and demolition waste, which accounts for half of the total waste, followed by municipal solid waste, comprising of one quarter of the total[138]. Other wastes are industrial waste (18%) and hazardous waste. These proportions vary slightly, for example in UAE, construction and demolition waste and Municipal Solid Waste comprises of two thirds and one thirds of the total respectively.

 

Increase in solid waste generation is becoming major concern for all members of GCC. According to a study, published by Frost and Sullivan in 2017, the total amount of solid waste generated in GCC amounts to 95-100 million metric tons.[139] All of these member states exceed the global average of 1.2 kilogram/person/day. UAE accounts for the highest share in waste generation per person per day at 2.1 kg. Qatar, Saudi Arabia and Bahrain have an average of 1.7kg/person/day, followed by Kuwait and Oman at 1.7 and 1.2 kg/person/day respectively. Rise in solid waste generation is becoming a major concern for these countries. Waste generated is estimated to increase from 94 million metric tons per annum to 120 millionmetric tons per annum by 2020[140], with KSA and UAE contributing major share of waste. Municipalities of GCC lack the infrastructure and capacity to handle such an amount of waste, making current landfilling strategies ineffective in the longer run.

 

 

Comparative Analysis of Municipal Solid Waste Composition in GCC Countries

In this section we will examine the amount of waste generated in GCC countries, along with their composition of different types of waste. Various waste disposal method practices and their effectiveness will be analyzed. We will also discuss common environmental issues faced by these countries and role of Supreme Council in tackling these issues.

 

Oman

According to Muscat Municipality Waste Generation Report, 257,004 tons of municipal solid waste was produced in 2001, while in 2009, the waste increased more than four times in Muscat in 2009.[141]

Table 1 lists major component of solid waste, with total waste comprising of 71.20% and 65.80% organic waste in winter and summer respectively. Remaining waste consists of inorganic components. Organic waste primarily comprises of vegetable waste, decayed vegetables and leaves. Weight and Volume of food waste increases by 10% in winter. Large quantities of food waste are generated from households and commercial entities like hotels and restaurants.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 1: Composition of Solid Waste in Oman in the Winter[142]

Paper is the second major component of solid waste, mainly comprising of packages made of cardboard and prints (books, magazines and newspapers). Due to absence of recycling industry for paper in Oman, most of the waste ends at landfill sites, meanwhile a large quantity of paper products are imported into the country.

Plastic waste, mainly comprises of beverages and soft drink bottles, is the third largest contributor of waste. Although plastic weight by percentage is low, it has comparatively high percentage volume. Dairy products such as milk and milk products come in plastic containers, which occupy greater space in landfills due to their rigidity against compaction.

Glass makes major component of inorganic waste. Most of the glass waste comes from beverages and juice bottles.[143]

 

 

Kuwait

The amount of solid waste generated by Kuwait is estimated upto 4 million metric tons. 25% of this waste comprises of household solid waste from residential areas. Construction waste comprises of majority of the waste in Kuwait due rapid economic and urban development that makes the construction of buildings necessary. Amount of construction waste generated throughout from 2002 to 2011 has been shown in the Table 2.  In the Municipal solid waste, organic waste comprises of up to 50% of the total, followed by paper (21%) and plastic (13%) respectively, as shown in the figure 1.

 

Table 2: Domestic and Construction Waste Quantity in Kuwait from 2002 to 2011[144]

Figure 1: Composition of Municipal Waste in Kuwait[145]

 

Qatar

According to Qatar Municipal Solid Waste Organization, Qatar produces 1 million metric tons of solid waste, approximating to 3,000 tons of waste per day. Industrial waste amounts to 2,500 tons per day while the construction and demolition waste approximates to 20,000 tons/day, which is increasing due to increase in urbanization.[146] 4,600 tons of waste gets recycled.[147] However, the waste generation varies from month to month. It becomes lower in summer months, when majority of expatriate population travels to spend holdays in their home countries.

In the municipal solid waste, 57% of the waste is organic, 11% paper, 14% plastic, glass 4% and metals 5%. (Qatar municipality)

 

 

Bahrain

Bahrain generates 1.2 million metric tons of solid waste per year, while the waste produced per day exceeds 4,500 tons. Organic waste comprises of 60% of the waste, which is mainly food waste, paper makes 13%, plastics 7% and glass 4%.[148] Due to rapid urbanization, amount of waste generated has increased in the past decades as demonstrated by Figure 2. Composition of waste also varies by different household income groups as shown in the Table 3.

 

Figure 2:Gross Domestic Product vs. MSW generation in Kingdom of Bahrain (1998-2010).[149]

 

 

 

 

Table 3: Domestic waste composition in Bahrain[150]

 

 

UAE

UAE generates 9.5 million metric tons of solid waste per year. Waste generation rates from 2012 to 2017 have been shown in the Table 4, which demonstrates decreasing construction and demolition waste, and municipal waste in 2017. According  to Figure (), construction and demolition waste makes up to 42%, industrial and commercial waste 33%, Municipal waste 15% and Agricultural waste 10% of the total.

 

Table 4:Non-hazardous solid waste generation by source activity[151]

 

 

 

Figure 3:Percentage distribution of Non-hazardous solid waste by source activity -2017 (Source: Statistic Centre - Abu Dhabi)[152]

 

Increasing rates of generation of waste presents a major concern for GCC countries. All these countries have above average rates of waste per person per day as compared to the rest of the world. Due to rapid urbanization and investment, construction and demolition waste contributes to the major share. Organic waste comprises of more than half of the municipal waste, followed by papers and plastics. The composition of waste varies in different income groups, with high income groups generating more waste. The amount of waste produced increases in winter and in the month of Ramadan, and decreases in summer as all GCC counties have large expatriate populations, which travel to their home countries to spend the vacations. In GCC, GDP has direct correlation with the amount of waste produced. The amount becomes significantly lower in the years of economic crises.

 

 

 

 

 

 

1. Disposal of non hazardous waste by GCC countries

In this section, various disposal methods of waste in individual GCC countries will be discussed, starting from collection of solid waste, transport, treatment via composting and incineration and final disposal at landfill sites. A comparative analysis will be made at each stage, discussing similarities and differences, highlighting major initiatives.

Oman

Oman lacks proper waste collection and disposal facilities. Disposal of solid waste in Oman is carried predominantly through landfill disposal. Oman Municipality operates 350 landfills.[153]Currently, there are five operating landfills in Muscat that include Al-SeebQuriyat, Al-Amerat, Mutrah and Bousher.[154]The existing landfills are open landfills without proper engineering as they were chosen out of the need. Waste is also sent to unauthorized sites for disposal, with several dumpsites closer to residential areas or ground aquifers. These landfills are operating as open dumps without consideration to the environment. The other potential problems include limited landfill capacity, gas and leachate production, and percolation of the leachate contaminating ground water sources.[155]

In Oman, Al Ameerat landfill is the first engineered sanitary landfill, which is spread around 9.6 hectares, with the total capacity of 10 million metric of solid waste. It has properly designed shafts which are interconnected to drain the leachate through leachate pump.[156]

However, Omani’s government has launched robust initiatives build MSW infrastructure that includes closing all of the dumpsites in Sultanate of Oman and replace them with 10-11 engineered landfills. Two landfills in particular, Al Multaqa and Al Barka landfills, are constructed with model engineering standards. To improve the collection of waste, 18-25 transfer stations are also being built as also shown in the Figure 4.

To increase landfill diversion rate, other disposal methods like composting, incarnation and recycling are being introduced. Strategic objective is to divert 60% of the waste from landfills in 2020 and up to 80% in 2030, which is being accomplished by 3 major ways:

 

1. Waste to Energy to Water

40% of the total MSW can be utilized in incinerators. The energy produced from burning the waste materials can be used to power Water Desalinization plants to produce 121 cubic metric of waster annually.

2. Waste to Fuel (RDF)

Rich organic compost is produced from organic waste, which makes more than half of the municipal waste. The waste with high chlorific value is utilized to produce refused derived fuel which can power various industries, cement industry in particular.

3. Production of Steam to promote Oil Extraction

The energy produced from incineration of waste can be used to produce steam for the purpose of oil extraction..

 

Figure 4: MSW Infrastructure in Sultanate of Oman[157]

 

 

Kuwait

The current waste collection practice includes collecting waste from all regions of the Kuwait and delivering them to landfills, handled by the private firms in contract with the city government (municipality).[158] Collection of the solid waste covers various aspects like location of industrial city, transfer stations and transportation method utilized. Roads in Kuwait are often congested, which makes the transportation of the waste difficult. Poor service is performed by municipality and contractors, as the materials aren’t segregated and transported directly to the landfills.

Transfer stations serve as intermediate points between collection sites and transportation of waste to the disposal sites.[159] Industrial cities use nearby landfills as transfer stations. Collected waste is then discharged into large trucks to be transported to landfills. Transfer stations reduce the cost by decreasing transportation distances, reducing traffic volume, enhancing segregation of materials and lowering the maintenance costs of vehicles.[160]

The most common disposal in Kuwait is dumping solid waste in landfills. Kuwait has 15 landfills in total, while 3 remain currently active that include Mina Abdullah, Al Jahra and South 7^th Ring Road as shown in the table. Majority of the waste is dumped in the South 7^th Ring Road landfill, which has largest area, serves 4 governorates and 70 main districts of the country. Some portion of the waste also goes for recycling and treatment, depending on the waste composition. However there are few recycling plants in Kuwait.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 5: Details of the current open MSW landfills in Kuwait[161]

 

 

All the solid waste is indiscriminately dumped to landfills, without any environmental precautions. Landfills cover 45.5 km² area of Kuwait and are approximated to increase by 60km² by 2025. Given the shortage of land in Kuwait, new land for landfills will be hard to find as the active landfills are running out of capacity, along with increasing demand for population land. 

 

Currently, there are 16 landfills in Kuwait and only 3 are operational. None of the active landfills qualify the status of sanitary landfill.[162] Neither of them are effectively designed, nor located.[163] Dumping of waste is causing problems, particularly inAlQurain and Sabhan landfills. There is occurrence of flares in the adjoining areas due to ignition of methane gas as well as strong odour. Leachates from Sabhan landfills lead to closure of nearby military installations. The area went unguarded which lead to illegal dumping of construction and demolition waste, wood and tires.

 

 

Qatar

In Qatar, construction waste contributes to major share of waste. Municipal solid waste is collected in plastic bags in Qatari households, and these bags contain mixed garbage, as there is no segregation of various waste components. This makes separation difficult at the later stages, which is achieved after their disposal at the landfill. Even at that stage, there is only separation of valuable components like plastics, glass, metal and paper, by either private scavenger as well as by recycling centers. The plastic bags from households are thrown in collection containers, located near the houses.

Qatar General Cleaning Project (QGCP)[164] leads municipalities, which are responsible for municipal waste collection, either through their own infrastructure or through partnerships with private sector. Around 700 trucks are used to collect waste from 54,000 collection sites, located at the distance of 6-7 km from the city center. The trucks dump the waste at transfer stations, which are open dumps, where the waste is stored for few days. Different trailers of various sizes transfer this waste to landfills. There is no separation of waste prior to dumping.

The methods used for waste disposal in Qatar are landfill and composting. Qatar has 3 active landfills; RawdaRashed for dumping construction and demolition waste, Umm Al-Afai for municipal waste and Al-Krana for dumping sewage waste.[165]Umm Al- Afai landfill was constructed 30 years ago. It covers area of Doha and handles 200 tons of waste daily. It is designed keeping in mind engineering standards and constructed on impermeable soil, to reduce the risk of leachate contamination. Collection pipes of height 12m efficiently release green house gases. There is lack of environmental regulations for these landfills to provide effective monitoring.

Most of the municipal solid waste in Qatar is organic, with the production of 300 ton/day. Many composting plants have been built in Doha, converting organic waste into 170 tons of compost per day, used as soil conditioner and fertilizer. Qatar has established The Anaerobic & Aerobic Digestion plant of the Domestic Solid Waste Management Centre, at Mesaieed, which is the largest composting plant in the world and first state of the art composting plant in middle-east. It produced 1000 tons of Grade A compost until date.[166]

Qatari Government has established Domestic Solid Waste Management Centre (DSWMC)[167] to implement various initiatives related separation at collection sites, recycling, conversion of waste into energy, composting, incarnated ash treatment and engineered solid waste landfill. The estimated cost of these projects amount to 3.9 billion QR. Various transfer stations will also been established, with the capacity of 4,450 tons/day.[168] The current capacity is 1,557 tons, less than waste generated, while only 1.3% of the total waste is recycled.[169]

 

 

Bahrain

Municipal Solid Waste contributes to major portion of solid waste in Bahrain. Waste collection services in Bahrain are provided by two private contractors; the Gulf City Cleaning Company[170] and Sphinx Services[171], collecting waste from Manama and Muharraq, and North, South and Middle Area governorates. Remaining waste is collected by other private companies, which aren’t restricted to any particular area. The two private contractors provide waste container per 12 households. In each governorate, the companies deploy 200 vehicles and 500 manual workers, involved in waste collection. Litter bins are also placed in specific areas such as bus stops and schools. All the citizens have access to reliable street sweeping service.[172]

Asker landfill is the only active landfill in Bahrain[173], situated 25 km from the capital city Manama. The ground has an impermeable layer of rock. However there is no leachate drainage layer or collection pipes for controlled emission of green house gases. Leachate production is quite low due to less rainfall, low ground permeability and hot climate. There are no transfer stations and the waste is directly dumped to landfills, without any pre-treatment. The landfill is running out of its capacity due to increasing input of waste.

Municipality of Bahrain is shifting towards landfill diversion alternatives. Ministry of Municipalities and Agriculture Affairs signed contract with an international company to construct waste to energy unit in the country, with capacity to process 390,000 tons of waste per year and produce electricity.

GCCC and Sphinx Services also provide 5 public recycling points for the collection of plastic waste, paper and metals in each area. These areas perform ineffectively due to lack of public awareness. Universe Projects International also provides public containers. The collected materials are manually separated and exported to other Gulf countries. Various NGOs like the Mother and Child Welfare Society collect recyclables and sell them to other recycling companies. Informal sector includes waste pickers that collect recyclables from households and waste containers and sell them to recycling companies. Crown Industries provides recycling plants, involved in recycling metals like iron, plastic and paper.

Organic Products (BOP) is the only private company providing composting service to Bahrain. It processes livestock waste like horse and sheep manure, green waste, to produce high quality compost.

The complete process of waste management is summarized through a flow diagram in the Figure 5.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 5: Semi-quantitative Shankey-type waste/secondary material flow diagram showing all the key non-hazardous waste system components and flows in Bahrain. Flows are in tonnes of materials per day (Mg day−1). Size of arrows is proportional to the relative magnitude of flows.[174]

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

UAE

 

UAE has a robust waste management system. Waste management responsibilities are split among 3 institutions by the Environment Agency Abu Dhabi. Tadweer handles municipal, medical, agricultural and, construction and demolition waste. FANR is processes radioactive waste while ADNOC handles oil and gas waste.[175]

Centre for Waste Management (CWM) established by the government of UAE, leads coordinated waste management initiatives in the entire region. Private sector plays a major role in solid waste management, through short term and long term contracts with the government, providing services and construction of waste management infrastructure. CWM in coordination with private sector is responsible for the collection, transportation and disposal of municipal solid waste in UAE. These private companies are called Environmental Service Providers (ESPs). Local municipality collects 11% of the waste.[176]

 

The waste from Greater Abu Dhabi is transported to Al Mafraq transfer station and finally to Al Dhafra landfill, with the capacity of 2,000 tons/day. From the western region, municipal solid waste is disposed in 7 official landfills that include Madinat Zayed, Al Sila/Baya, Gogeven, Al Ruwais, Al Mirfa, Yathi andKhannur landfills as shown in Figure 6. These landfills are designed based on best environmental principles to prevent leachate percolation to the ground.

 

 

Figure 6: Waste Management Facilities in Abu Dhabi[177]

 

 

 

Western region also accommodates 2 composting plants for handling organic waste, in Liwa and Ghayathi, and are equipped with mobile composting equipment. UAE has also established 2 incineration plants and 4 recycling plants as show in table. Percentage distribution of waste management plants have been shown in the Table 6.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 6:  Waste management plants in UAE Dhabi – 2017[178]

 

 

 

 

 

 

Due to rapid urbanization and development of UAE, construction waste represents major share of solid waste. The factors contributing to the construction and demolition waste include lack of companies supporting leadership[179], poor design, lack of government legislations, lack of recycling plants and lack of contractual incentives. Lack of awareness is the major cause behind construction and demolition waste generation.[180]

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

All of the countries of GCC have similar methods of waste disposal, with their specific challenges. UAE and Bahrain have most efficient waste disposal systems than rest of GCC. This is achieved through various contracts with the private sector. Besides, these countries have also established incineration and recycling plants. Construction waste is the major component of solid waste in all GCC countries due to rapid urbanization and number of ongoing investment projects, which is related to their increasing GDP. UAE has launched various initiatives to minimize construction waste. Major cause of CDW is lack of awareness among company managers regarding waste management. None of these countries employ separation of wastes before dumping at landfills, which make the separation difficult. The available land to meet future landfill demands is severely limited in countries like Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar and UAE. These GCC members are looking for alternate methods for landfill diversion. Landfills in UAE and Oman are designed on state of the art standards to prevent leachate percolation and emission of green house gases.  Qatar has established world’s largest composting plant, producing Grade A compost. Bahrain carries recycling efficiently through various private collection companies, recycling plants and involvement of informal sector.

 

 

 

 

 

1. Common Environmental Issues faced by GCC Countries in relation to Waste Management

In this section, environmental issues related to various disposal practices like landfilling, incineration and composting will be discussed related to emission of green house gases, biodiversity loss, contamination of groundwater and soil. Table summarizes environmental impact of various waste disposal methods.

Emission of Green House Gases and Climate Change

Greenhouse effect[181] is contributing to warming of our planet through trapping heat due to presence of particular gases in the atmosphere, called Greenhouse Gases (GHGs).[182] The most potent of these gases are methane, carbon dioxide and nitric oxide. Each of the gas has Global Warming Potential (GWP) value, which indicates their potent value relative to carbon dioxide. For example GWP value of methane is 28[183], which means 1 ton of methane has warming potential of 28 tons of carbon dioxide.

 

Municipal Solid Waste, at different stages of management of collection, transportation and disposal as shown in the Table 7, contributes to a significant share of Greenhouse Gases. According to World Bank Report in 2017[184], solid waste contributed to 5% of the emissions worldwide. In GCC countries, more than half of the municipal solid waste dumped at the landfills contains biodegradable, organic matter. Upon decomposition methane is produced[185], which traps almost 20 times more heat than CO². Due to foul smelling gases, there is also increase in respiratory issues.  Emission of greenhouse gases from incinerators, as shown in the Table 7, is also a major contributor to climate change.

 

Biodiversity Loss and Ecological Imbalance

Landfills cover a wide area, affecting the local biodiversity. 30 to 300 species per hectare are lost due to presence of landfill site. Some birds and mammal, like crows and rats, feed on the different components of waste, leading to their dominance and disturbing natural ecosystem, leading to extinction of other mammals and birds. Similarly, due to presence of certain nutrients in the waste, certain plant species replace the existing ones, due to competition of resources.[186]

 

Contamination of Ground Water Resources

Majority of the landfills in GCC countries are open dumps and lack engineered designs to cope up the problem of leachate percolation in the surrounding soul. Many organic and irorganic waste products dissolve in the rain water, collecting at the base of the landfill.[187] Leachate contains toxic organic compounds, ammonia, heavy metals and pathogens, which then percolates, contaminating water aquifers[188] through percolation through permeable ground. These pathogens are aerobic bacteria, which can deplete the water oxygen levels, creating high oxygen demand, impacting quality of the water.  In GCC countries, ground water resources are already scarce and are being exploited at a rapid pace due to rapid urbanization. Contamination of these sources poses a significant thread.

 

Soil Contamination

Lechates produced from landfills contain toxic products that destroy the quality of the surrounding soil.[189]This leads to desertification and loss of land, which is already a concern in GCC countries due to increased demand of land for rapid urbanization. The extent of the impact depends upon the composition of leachate such as availability of oxygen, landfill design and age.[190]The landfills are also reaching their capacity and render the land completely useless as the land cannot be used for construction purposes due to continuously decaying waste compounds. Ash produced from incineration contains toxic heavy metals, which also contaminate the soul.[191]

 

 

 

Table 7: A summary of the direct environmental impacts of various waste technologies [192]

 

 

_b Abbreviations: GHG, greenhouse gas; PAH, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon; PCB, polychlorinated biphenyl; VOC, volatile organic compound.

 

Current disposal practices from collection to disposal pose a significant threat to environment. Landfills and incineration are responsible for emission of green house gases like methane, with large Global Warming Potential. Dumping of waste also leads to loss of ecology, as certain species, feeding on the waste become dominant and lead to extinction of other species. The decomposing organic matter and ash from incinerators produce leachate, rich with heavy metals. As the landfills aren’t designed with good engineering standards, leachate percolates to the ground contaminating soil and ground water. It also makes surrounding area inhabitable.

 

 

 

Conclusion

 

GCC countries are among the top 10 per capita waste generators of the world. All of these countries exceed the global average waste generation rate of 1.7 kg/per person/per day. Due to rapid urbanization and construction projects, majority of the waste generated is construction and demolition waste. Among the municipal solid waste, more than half of the waste is organic matter, primarily comprising of food residues, followed by paper, metals and glass. Current waste disposal practices involve collection of waste from households, transport of the waste by trucks at the transfer stations and final disposal at landfills. Depending on the composition of the waste, it is also processed at composting plants, producing compost as well as burnt at incinerators. There is no sorting of waste during the point of collection due to low awareness among public regarding waste disposal. Most of the landfills in GCC countries are open dumps that are not engineered to prevent leakage of leachates. These sites are located near residential areas and running out of storage capacities. It poses a significant challenge due to shortage of land available for new landfills. Current disposal practices pose a significant thread to environment. Organic waste at landfills release greenhouse gasses, leading to global warming and leachates, contaminating soil and ground water reservoirs. They also lead to biodiversity loss.

 

There is a need to opt for landfill diversion methods to reduce disposal at waste sites. Many of the waste materials are recyclables. Boosting recycling sector, formal and informal, can reduce waste significantly. Among GCC countries, Bahrain has effective model for waste disposal. It relies heavily on private sector in partnership with local municipalities for waste disposal. Many private companies also provide recycling services. Qatar has established world’s largest composting plant, which produces high quality compost. In Oman, state of the art, engineered landfills have been built, along with investment in waste to energy solutions. To reduce construction and demolition waste, these countries need t focus on developing quality designs, supporting leadership, government legislations, recycling plants and contractual incentives for these industries.

 

 

 

 

 

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[1]  , Understanding Waste Streams, (EU: European Parliament, 2015), https://www.europarl.europa.eu/EPRS/EPRS-Briefing-564398-Understanding-waste-streams-FINAL.pdf.

[2]"Nonhazardous Waste," Encyclopedia.com, accessed February 29, 2020, https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/applied-and-social-sciences-magazines/nonhazardous-waste.

 

[3]  "Waste Generation Meaning," ALS Environmental, accessed Febn  ruary 29, 2020, https://www.caslab.com/Waste_Generation_Meaning/.

[4] Bijaya K. Adhikari et al., "Characterization of food waste and bulking agents for composting," Waste Management 28, no. 5 (2008)

[5] Development and implementation of WG, “ Performance Assessment Model for Municipal Solid Waste Management Systems”

[6]Omnisconline article review,  “ Implementation of bulking Agents in Compositing.”

[7] United States Department of Agriculture, “Food Loss and Waste 2030 Champions.”

 

[8] Case Study Review, “Waste to Energy Potential in Saudia Arabia”

 

[9]World Bank, Global waste to grow by 70 percent by 2050, unless action is taken

[10] Britannica, “Description of solid-Waste Management.”

 

[11] Ouda, Solid Waste management in saudi arabia, Oct/19/2017.

[12] Journal of Biological Sciences, “Food Waste and Sustainability in Saudi Arabia Review.”

 

[13] Review, “Solid Waste Manaement in Saudi Arabia”

 

[14] Planning Model, “ Jeddah City Household Solid Waste Composition and Management.”

 

[15] World Health Organization, “About healthcare Waste.”

 

[16] Britanicca, “Treatment Storage and Disposal.”

[17] Nuclear waste, “Ideas Versus Reality.”

[18]Finz Article Review, ”Sustainable Management of Construction and Demolition Materials.”

[19] Springer Description, “Sustainable Construction Pertaining Waste Management.”

[20]BioenergyConsult, “Municipal States in Saudi Arabia.”

[20] Journal of Science of and Agriculture, “Review of Solid Waste Management”

[20] Hasin, “Solid Waste Management Practices,” 9.

[20] MSWM, “Performance Assessment Model for Municipal Solid Waste System.”

 

[21] Finz Article Review, ”Sustainable Management of Construction and Demolition Materials.”

[22]Ibid,

[23] Ibid

[24]Junk King, Construction waste disposal: best practices include recycling

[25] Merriam-Webster, “E-waste Definition,” 3.

[26] Deli, “Electronic Waste Management Approached, Saudia Arabia,” 7.

[27]  World Health Organization, “Children’s Environmental Health” Electronic Waste (E-waste).”

[28] Saudi Gazette, “Electronic Waste Increases by About 25%.”

[29] Recycle Your E-waste for Free, “What to Do with Your Old Electronics.”

[29] Jennifer Schultz, e-waste recycling, 9/17/2018

[30] Ibid,

[31] Ibid,

[32] 6Abdulaziz S. Alidi, "Assessment of Municipal Solid Waste Management Practices in Saudi Arabia," Journal of Environmental Systems 23, no. 3 (1994)

[33] Sushma and Zeba, "Recycling of Textiles Waste for Environmental Protection," 166.

[34] Alriyadh, “Plan to Implement recycling in Riyadh city,” 12.

[35] Won Yang, Hyung-sik Nam and Sangmin Choi, "Improvement of Operating Conditions in Waste Incinerators Using Engineering Tools", Waste Management 27, no. 5 (2007).

[36] Municipal solid waste Law, 2013/25/07, Section 2.

[37] Ibid 14.

[38] Planning Model, “Jeddah City Household Solid Waste Composition and Management.”

[39] Ibid 32.

[40]A.S. Nizami et al., "The Potential of Saudi Arabian Natural Zeolites in Energy Recovery Technologies", Energy 108 (2016

[41]. Bijaya K. Adhikari et al., "Characterization of Food Waste and Bulking Agents for Composting", Waste Management 28, no. 5 (2008)

[42]Abdullah Saeed Al-Ghamdi and Asad Seraj Abu-Rizaiza, "Report: Pipeline Transport of Solid Waste in The Grand Holy Mosque In Makkah", Waste Management & Research 21, no. 5 (2003)

[43] Municipal solid waste Law, 2013/25/07, Section 2.

[44] Ibid

[45] Omar K.M. Ouda, Huseyin M. Cekirge and Syed A.R. Raza, "An Assessment of The Potential Contribution From Waste-To-Energy Facilities To Electricity Demand In Saudi Arabia", Energy Conversion And Management 75 (2013)

[46] Ibid

[47]Ibid

[48]Ankit Agarwal et al., "Municipal solid waste recycling and associated markets in Delhi, India," Resources, Conservation and Recycling 44, no. 1 (2005)

[49]Miandad, Rashid,Anjum, Muzammil,Waqas, Muhammad,Ahmad, Ijaz,Alafif, Ziad,Aburizaiza, Asad,Barakat, Mohamed,Akhtar, Tasneem Solid waste management in Saudi Arabia: A review

Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture.

[50]Mufide Banar et al., "Choosing a municipal landfill site by analytic network process," Environmental Geology 52, no. 4 (2006)

[51]A Allen, "Containment Landfills: The Myth Of Sustainability", Engineering Geology 60, no. 1-4 (2001)

[52]"Corrigendum: Landfill Site Selection In Makkah Using Geographic Information System And Analytical Hierarchy Process", Waste Management & Research, 2019

[53] Umar Imtiaz Ahmed, Conceptual MSW Landfill Design and Waste-To-Energy Recovery Potential for Greater Dammam Area .

[54]   J.A. Micales and K.E. Skog, "The Decomposition Of Forest Products In Landfills", International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation 39, no. 2-3 (1997)

[55]Ibid

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