Marrow of Tradition

Charles W. Chesnutt, an African American author, wrote a historical novel The Marrow of Tradition in 1901. The novel aimed at showing the rise of the white supremacist movement in Wilmington, North Carolina in 1898. The novel is based Major Carteret’s family, and the black Dr. Miller’s family. Carteret plots to evict “Negro dominance” in the city. Meanwhile, Carteret’s wife, Olivia and his son, Dodie, are severely ill. Doctor Miller is qualified to cure them, but he is denied access to Carteret’s home. Later, Dodie’s health deteriorates, and he turns to Dr. Miller for help. This paper analyzes the facts of the coup d’état, that Chesnutt integrates into his novel from the article “The Lost History of an American coup d’état”. The paper also analyzes why Chesnutt makes the key changes and finally, how Major Carteret differs or is similar to Waddell.

Chesnutt uses the supremacists’ meeting in Major Carteret’s office to show that the riots were not a spontaneous act of violence. Carteret uses his newspaper articles to spread propaganda about the fight against African Americans. Carteret urges Captain McBane and General Belmont to resist against Negro dominance. Carteret uses his powerful position to his advantage because he knew that the people could listen to him. Also, when Sandy, a Negro worker of Mr. Delamere is falsely accused of killing Polly, Carteret seizes the opportunity to turn the public against the black community violently. According to Lafrance & Newkirk (27), during the Wilmington massacre, the war had resulted from a well-planned Democratic leaders’ campaign strategy, which could assist them in regaining political power and control.

Chesnutt opposes the claims that black people are immoral, inferior and criminals, one of the main rhetoric of the white supremacy. When Polly Ochiltree, Olivia Carteret’s aunt is murdered, the authority blames Sandy for the murder. This is because Tom Delamere, Mr. Delamere’s grandson, disguises himself as Sandy to steal gambling money from Polly, which scares her to death. Carteret’s newspaper edition claims that Sandy sexually assaulted Polly too before she died, a scenario that encourages the white people to form a lynch mob to execute justice (McElrath 25). When the authority discovers the truth, Delamere request Carteret to inform the people through the newspaper to save the life of Sandy. Mr. Delamere is quietly sympathetic of the African Americans and even defend Sandy before Major Carteret. However, even after Sandy is found innocent, Carteret creates a false story of another black man being responsible for Polly’s murder and labels African American men as a threat to white women. Unfortunately, during the Wilmington massacre, black people were always seen as criminals and could be judged unfairly, but in his novel, Chesnutt saves the black man’s life, and justice is served.

Also, Chesnutt aimed to show people that race-baiting inspired hatred beyond the leaders’ powers. This shows Waddell’s experience of a mob which the leaders could not control. While watching the tragedy that occurs between the Green’s armies and McBane, Carteret says, “I meant to keep them (blacks) in their places – I did not intend wholesale murder and arson.” (Chesnutt 36). He anxiously requests the white demonstrators to stop the riots saying, “Gentlemen, this is murder and madness; it is a disgrace to our city, our state, to our civilization!” (Chesnutt 37) Carteret contradicts himself because he used the same statements to incite the whites against the Negro rule. He tries to stop the crowd to protect his public image. Despite his efforts to cool the crowd down, Carteret merely intensifies the peoples’ anger (Chesnutt 38). Chesnutt supports Weddell’s claim that the lower classes oppressed the black community; yet he firmly believes that Weddell was responsible for inciting the massacre of November 10, 1898. 

Additionally, Chesnutt uses his novel to show that ‘traditional roles’ are reversed. Major Carteret and his wife Olivia have lived to despise Doctor Miller and his wife Janet, Olivia’s black sister, due to their negative perspective toward African American people. When Dodie is on the verge of death, Carteret and his wife turn to Doctor Miller’s family for help. Doctor Miller’s family is mourning the death of their son at that time, who had been shot in a riot, which was initiated by Major Carteret. At this critical moment, Olivia proudly accepts her stepsister, appealing to their nature as mothers and the blood they share. Janet is hesitant to agree to “your father’s name, your father’s wealth, your sisterly recognition,” (Chesnutt 45). Janet still permits her husband to go and save the life of the little Dodie Carteret, because the child is innocent, and it is her husband’s duty to save lives. On arrival to Carteret’s house, the doctor in charge inform Miller on the urgency of the treatment, “There’s time enough, but none to spare.” (Chesnutt 50). This ordeal goes against the Wilmington supremacists who viewed the black community as ignorant and worthless. The whites view African Americans as invader who came to snatch their opportunities. The audience learns that African American can be of significant impact to the society, just like the white man. Chesnutt believes that in time, the community may find a remedy for every social ill, and also gives his readers an illusion hope of reconciliation between the black and white people.

Chesnutt had different reasons for making changes to the Wilmington coup d’état facts in his novel. First, Chesnutt aimed to reveal the negative effects the press had in spreading propaganda which led to Wilmington tragedy. In both the novel and Wilmington tragedy, newspaper articles were the main inciting factors which led to racism. In Wilmington, the white demonstrators burnt down the black newspaper center because it was seen as the main cause of the Negro superiority. The supremacist’s aim was to ignite anger in the white citizen and develop hatred towards the black citizens. Second, Chesnutt hoped to reduce cases of racial discrimination in the United States (Izzo, David, & Maria 23). Throughout United States’ history, people have always been divided along racial lines. Though the American system has always been based on equal rights, there are individuals that cannot accept that God created every human being in his own image and everybody is equal. Chesnutt wanted to show that there is no supreme race and people are entitled to their natural rights at birth. Every person have the right for what they own as long as they attain their properties legally. In his novel, Charles ensured that the doctor who would save Carteret’s child was black to show to show the society that white people and black people need each other in life.

Lastly, Major Carteret is similar to Waddell at some point. First, they are both cunning. Both Carteret and Waddell pretended to care for the people and promote peace, but in the real sense, they aimed to turn the whites against African American. Second, both Carteret and Waddell wanted political superiority. According to (Sundquist 24), the black rule was rising each day, and the white supremacists feared that African American people would dominate the land forcing the whites to submit to black rulers. Also, white men felt threatened by black men dominance because their women would see them as inferior. Inciting the people would give them more power to fulfill their desires.

In conclusion, the novel Marrow of Tradition was written as a refutation of the many historical accounts in American history textbooks today. Chesnutt writes the book to inform the people of the actual occurrences and causes of the Wilmington tragedy. He uses mixed races in his work to show the society that ethnic diversity is essential for a harmonious society. Chesnutt also brings out the positive traits of black people in the hope that the white man can view black people as normal human beings, who deserves to be treated with care and respect. It is, therefore, necessary for those in authority to encourage cultural diversity to reduce racial discrimination in the United States and other continents to help prevent the occurrence of another tragedy.   

Works Cited

Chesnutt, Charles W. The Marrow of Tradition. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1901. PRINT.

Izzo, David G, and Maria Orban. Charles Chesnutt Reappraised: Essays on the First

Major African American Fiction Writer. Jefferson, N.C: McFarland & Co, 2009.

Internet resource. PRINT.

Lafrance, Adrienne, & Newkirk, Vann. The Lost History of American Coup D’état. United

States.2017. PRINT.
McElrath, Joseph R., Jr., ed. Critical Essays on Charles W. Chesnutt. New York: G. K. Hall,

1999. PRINT.
      Sundquist, Eric. J. To Wake the Nations: Race in the Making of American Literature.Cambridge,

Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1993. PRINT.

How Does The Slave Trade Highlight The Dark Side Of The Enlightenment?

The darker reflection of the enlightenment period can best be observed in the manner in which its notions were applied in the justification of slavery.  To begin with, the Enlightenment period did not only create fresh thoughts support by evidence but worked to instill each notion in every individual’s mind which contributed to behavioral and thoughts changes (Alexander & Rucker, 2010). The primary idea that shows the darker portion of enlightenment lies on its confidence in the legitimacy of worldwide truth. The Enlightenment period perceived truth as a global and believable notion. This notion was, therefore, applicable to anybody regardless of any consideration. Enlightenment philosophers progressed conviction and dictatorship as the global idea of existing the best life (Alexander & Rucker, 2010). Once their thoughts were understood then it was then utilized as a background for judging each of them.

Enlightenment philosophies particularly drove several opposing issues in the globe (Grimm, 2009). Some enlightenment philosophers, therefore, defended that freedom was a natural human privilege and with that rationale and scientific experience neither the government nor religious was responsible for human development. However, enlightenment notions additionally providing support for slavery particularly grounded on racial hierarchy. In that Enlightenment philosophers created racial segregation via their general promotion of race superiority and inferiority (Alexander & Rucker, 2010). They believed that slave and blacks, in particular, were mediocre to the whites and therefore, they deserved less freedom. It is apparent that enlightenment thinkers normally developed profound racial prejudice perspectives on the no-whites. The philosophers completely understood the concepts of racial differences and they worked on promoting the natural differences amid races (Alexander & Rucker, 2010).

The enlightenment desire for practicality, prudence and scientific knowledge inevitably resulted in the notion of racial categorization. In that their practicability promoted perceivable distinctions amid individuals which highlighted their natural distinctions (Alexander & Rucker, 2010). On the other hand, rationalism suggested actual inner differences particularly the cognitive ones in the quest to providing explanations for the professed behavioral inequalities. The idea of savage among the philosophers was common, a notion that mainly promoted the belief that slaves were justified on the fact that they needed to be rescued from suffering. In this context, they promoted the thought that slaves were from the inferior races based on their natural and cognitive distinctions with the civilized whites subjected to quality education and civilization. This thought created rather negative and missed perception that sought to defend but slightly rejects slavery via the use of scientific and natural beliefs. For instance from Marie Jean, ‘’No one constantly supposed that the human mind could consume all the realities of nature’’ (Grimm, 2009).

Throughout the enlightenment period, equivalent, racial distinctions, and superiority were utilized commonly to reflect the uneducated, basic and rough features that white’s thinkers wished to compare with their self-based civilized features (Grimm, 2009). In this notion, they assumed both cultural as well as racial superiority with the English while the savage idea communicated the general thought of their lack of privileges. It is thus apparent that the dimmer side of enlightenment was based on its notion of racial hierarchy and natural differences among the groups. In that based on the thinker’s knowledge, they held profound beliefs on racial superiority. Their notions created grounds for comparison where most individuals were mainly involved in highlighting differences (Alexander & Rucker, 2010). This, in turn, resulted in racial segregation among the existing groups. This, therefore, demonstrates that the enlightenment time was associated with positive as well as undesirable aspects of slavery.

References

Alexander, L. M., & Rucker, W. C. (2010). Encyclopedia of African American history: Volume 3. Santa Barbara, Calif: Abc-clio.

Baron de Grimm. (2009). Historical and Literary Memoirs and Anecdotes. H. Colburn, Pdf.

Institutional racism

 Educations and Hispanics or Blacks

             Education is important as it acts as a tool for empowerment and economic mobility. However, education inequality is big problem in U.S since education attainment is determined by racial and social class. Racial inequality in education system has been contributed by the racism behavior of linking education with cultural values, sexual orientation, and social status among other elements. Racial disparity in education system is evident from k-12 schooling where children get limited early childhood education programs. The research finds that   minority children live a poor life and this affects their education life since they do not get enough education, they lack job opportunities and suffer from health problems in their future life.  Boys experience hardships in their adult life since lack of education increases the likelihood of being involved in criminal activities and girls end up giving birth at immature age. Some studies argue that minority have created “individual-level-of analysis” which makes them belief that they are poor and they fear being labeled as ‘acting white’.  Lack of education has been associated with economic disadvantage and this is contributed by the high rate of poverty. Black people have experienced education disparities which   has negatively affected their socioeconomic status.

Lack of education is a big issue to minority when it comes to employment and wages in technology based industries. Gatchair (357) asserts policymakers and entrepreneurs focusing on developing policies which   are based on developing technology based industries for the purpose of economic growth. Such industries require a high level of knowledge which aligns with the modern technology. In this case, African Americans and Hispanics do not get job opportunities in these industries since they lack science and engineering skills. The problem with education inequality is explained further by human capital theory which asserts that employment and earning is determined by ability and skill. In other words,  human capital   such as education play a significant role in helping an individual get   high paying job (Gatchair, 357).  Human capital investment creates a difference since individual with high education will enjoy many benefits compared with individuals with low level of education.  Other important point is that human capital will create more opportunities of getting better jobs. This means that African Americans will   lack opportunities of getting higher paying jobs in the labor market (Gatchair, 358).  According to human capital theory, human capital investment improves productivity. The article asserts that education in labor market is seen as a method of filtering and screening. This means that    in an organization, an employer does not understand the ability of an employee. Therefore,   the level of education of an employee helps the employer understand the ability and productivity level.  In addition, many industries use higher education to elate and assess the ability and performance of an employee. The problem with signaling   process is that it does not only focus on level of education but they also need to know the schools attended (Gatchair, 358).  

  Human capital theory clearly shows that Black individuals in the labor market are under-represented in technology based industries which require science and engineering education.  Some researches argue that failure to study science and engineering subjects and   lack of job opportunity in technology industry is as a result of African American decisions (Gatchair, 359). It is argued that Black individuals   choose education and socials sciences career for community development and ignores careers in science and engineering simply because it is unrewarding in terms of financial returns. However, black scientists argue that racial discrimination which is socially constructed and hinder African American from pursuing S&E subjected in white dominated institutions.  When Black and other minorities enter in the science and engineering field, the attrition rate is high. Other studies argue that the high rate of attrition is contributed by lack of preparation or under-preparation (Gatchair, 359). Other argument  is that  under-preparation is due to the fact that  Black students  do not take pre-requisite courses  and  get under-resourced schools  among other discriminatorily actions which affect their  success in  science and engineering field. Other important point is that Black individuals do not get support and encouragement from mentors. In addition, they are suffering from financial constraints and experience cultural isolation and discriminatory action in institutions. The above research especially on the fact that Black people face under-preparation is an indication that when they enter in technology industry, they will face discrimination since employers will not use their education level as a signal for ability and productivity (Gatchair, 360). In other words, they will be under-presented in these industries and hey will be forced to search for less rewarding jobs.

Hornsby and Sheila (102) assert that in hospitality industry, there is cultural and ethnic diversity where only 34.9% minorities work in these industries.  In hospitality organization, lack of education is the main factor which denies them the opportunity to work in management-level position. In most cases, they work in hourly positions and receive low ages. The point is that the diversity in hospitality industry is contributed by lack of education programs and recruiting to minorities (Hornsby & Sheila, 103).  Various researches have confirmed that the number of minorities who do not get opportunity in high position will increase since they are denied hospitality training programs in U.S universities.  The big problem is that this phenomenon is only researched by few scholars and this is an indication that researches do not concentrate on minority hospitality education as well as their needs (Hornsby & Sheila, 103).  This ignorance or lack of concern denies minorities the opportunity to purse education on hospitality field.  Studies on this issue have shown that there are 24 hospitality programs and only few minorities   study these programs. The article states that studies on recruitment and retention have been done but the study on minority in hospitality has been ignored (Hornsby & Sheila, 104).  It is also important to note that lack of research is due to the fact that there is no critical mass of minority and so it is not possible to find their experience in hospitality education.  The authors add that   the color line division has affected the higher education and employment.  Education inequality hinder minority in being employment in hospitality industries and they do not get access to economic benefit.  This affects their lives as they end up living a poor life which hinders them from accessing health care and other important social service and resources (Hornsby & Sheila, 105).

 Educational difference between White and Black is not a social structural condition but rather it is problem which stems from minority background (Mocombe & Carol, 1).  The oppositional culture theory explained the argument by focusing on two types of minorities.  First, there are immigrants’ minorities who had self-determination of migrating to U.S. Thus, these individuals have optimistic attitudes of achieving their goal and succeeding in life.  On the other hand, there are involuntary minorities and these are individuals who were slaves and they found themselves in U.S society against their will (Mocombe & Carol, 5). These individuals have the attitude that they are different from the dominant group and they refer to themselves as disfavored group.  The negative perceptions make them belief that they are minorities, they cannot get job opportunities and for this reason, they do not value education.  Other point is that minorities develop ‘identity-in-differential’ and tend to belief that certain activities belong to White Americans (Mocombe & Carol, 5).  In addition, they have created a ‘culture of poverty’ which make them to lack importance on education. They undervalue education and other activities which could lead to success as they fear being labeled as ‘acting white’. The latter creates a difference in academic achievement and this becomes a heavy burden in their lives.  In U.S, capitalism world-system does not align with Black’s illegal activities such as drug and crime (Mocombe & Carol, 1).  The fear of being labeled as ‘acting white’ makes Blacks to prefer being engages in sports, music and more. The argument is that education disparities are not racism but rather it an “individual-levels of analysis” which made Blacks belief that there is difference in social situations (Mocombe & Carol, 6).

 Conclusion

 Education disparity is associated with negative consequences which affects the entire life of minority groups. The research has shown that lack of education contributes to socioeconomic inequality in that minorities does not get good jobs and they get poor payment. In labor markets, productivity is measured by human capital. This means that minority who do attain high education do not access or enjoy economic benefit.  In addition, the issue of socioeconomic inequality has a profound effect in that there is cultural and ethnic disparity in hospitality management where minorities does get access to high promotion due to lack of education.  However, the  opposition argument state that  there is no racism in education system but what happens is that Blacks  have the negative attitude that they are poor and they fear being labeled as ‘acting white’.

Work cited

Gatchair, Sonia. "Race/Ethnicity and Education Effects on Employment in High Technology Industries and

Occupations in the US, 1992-2002." Review of Black Political Economy, vol. 40, no. 4, Dec. 2013,

370. 357-370. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1007/s12114-013-9157-7.

Hornsby, Gilpatrick Deshone and Sheila A. Scott-Halsell. "Minorities in Hospitality Management: The

State of Diversity in Hospitality Education." Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Education, vol. 27,

111. 3, July 2015, pp. 102-111. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1080/10963758.2015.1064316.

Mocombe, Paul, and Carol Tomlin. The Oppositional Culture Theory. Lanham, Md: University Press of

America Inc, 2010. Print.

Annotated bibliography

Mocombe, Paul, and Carol Tomlin. The Oppositional Culture Theory. Lanham, Md: University Press of

America Inc, 2010. Print.

 In this book, the author explores the education achievement gap between Whites and Blacks.  The author helps the reader to understand that African Americans have created the achievement gap through their own social functions. Thus, rather than concluding  that there is education racism in U.S, the book  uses oppositional culture theory to argue that  Blacks are  controlled by the perceptions that  certain activities belong to Whites.  In addition, the book states that blacks define themselves as ‘underclass’ and they follow the culture of poverty. All these negative perceptions hinder them in attaining education and succeeding   in life.  The author adds something important and states that they undervalue education and they are controlled by the fear of ‘acting white’. This means that the social psychology makes them belief that they cannot achieve high education and so they prefer other activities such as music.

Hornsby, Gilpatrick Deshone and Sheila A. Scott-Halsell. "Minorities in Hospitality Management: The

State of Diversity in Hospitality Education." Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Education, vol.

27, no. 3, July 2015, pp. 102-111. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1080/10963758.2015.1064316.

            The article by Hornsby and Scott-Halsell introduces   the hospitality   industry and minority. The purpose of this article is to show the reader that in modern world, minorities are underrepresented in the hospitality leadership position. This is mainly due to the reason that they do not get higher education which is applicable in these industries. Even if they are employed in hospitality industry, they get hourly jobs. They major cause of disparity is failure of Blacks to achieve hospitality education degree which is required in the management positions. The article offers valuable information by stating that the problem is rooted from universities where there is inadequate hospitality education for minorities. The study in this article shows that enrollment data in other fields was compared with enrollment data on hospitality education and found that minorities are underrepresented in the hospitality education programs. When they in career field, they end up living a poverty life due to lack of higher paying jobs.

Gatchair, Sonia. "Race/Ethnicity and Education Effects on Employment in High Technology Industries

and Occupations in the US, 1992-2002." Review of Black Political Economy, vol. 40, no. 4, Dec.

2013, pp. 357-370. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1007/s12114-013-9157-7.

Sonia offers important information that lack of education contributes to socioeconomic disadvantage toward minorities. In labor markets, high technology industry employs workers who have higher education and who are competent in science and engineering field.  This means that lack of   education especially in these subjects deny the minorities an opportunity to get career in high technology industry. The article goes on to assert that productivity is measured with respect to the levels of human capital. Thus, level of educational attainment creates employment different between black and whites. Lack of education forces Black people to search for other low paying jobs to sustain their living.  In addition, they end living a poor life since they do not get access to higher paying jobs which demands higher level of education.

 National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)

Introduction

NAACP is a public interest group in the United States which majors in the protection of civil rights in accordance to the needs of the community. NAACP is the oldest and most prominent Interest group majoring in matters pertaining civil rights in U.S. It is important to note that NAACP’s initiation preceded formulation of legal strategies for the sake of modifying concerns raised by the public due to the complexity of civil rights. The group’s consistency and its importance to the society at large is signified by the fact that it includes a huge number of members and also supporters across U.S. In general, the main interest of NAACP is to enforce reforms oriented at modifying civil rights, mobilizing voting rights and establishing equity in response to public interests

History

NAACP was initiated in 1909 by a unionization of both black and black intellectuals. The main reason behind their cooperation included intellectuals’ need to resist persistence of lynching practices that was since characterized horrific effects in the American community. NAACP foundation was as well focused to spell out the need of embracing a community that characterizes affluent aspects of racial equality in response to the race riot that took place in Springfield in 1908. NAACP’s commitment was to put into effect impartiality of rights to every individual to the constitution of the United States. Expansion of the group’s mission to other regions is critiqued in 1916 under the ruling of a field secretary regarded as James Johnson. Johnson became the leader of NAACP in 1920 after which he was replaced by Walter White who managed NAACP from 1930. Through their leadership, NAACP became a major group in the United States as far as matters of Civil Rights are concerned. Its continued efforts to itemize equality attracted much attention and in turn NAACP started to expand its activities not only in America but also internationally in 1940s. NAACP’s operational programs evidenced in the modern community are connected to Hook’s ruling from 1977 which implemented affluent programs in order to enhance equity (NAACP, 2017).

Mission

The primary mission of NAACP is to ascertain equal rights to every individual and at the same time abolishment of racial discrimination in the American society. NAACP’s mission underlines the need diminish discrimination in various backgrounds including political, economic, educational and social settings in order to enhance equality in the community. Importantly, the association focuses to develop a community that deters any forms of discrimination particularly discrimination of racism (NAACP, 2017).

NAACP highlights a definite set of objectives which in due course exemplify its mission to abolish inequality. NAACP emphasizes that every citizen should be provided with equal privileges in various areas such as in political, economic and educational fields. It critiques application of democratic processes including courts in order to hinder instincts of racial discrimination. The group is meant to as well influence enforcement of laws such as federal laws in order to secure the appropriateness of Civil Rights. Additionally, NAACP documents its responsibility to make the awareness of effects caused by racial discrimination so as to enhance termination and in unison familiarize the public with comprehensive rights in accordance to the constitution.

NAACP’s Operations

Past operations

NAACP is founded as the facilitator of education transformation in 1954 since it purposely challenged state sponsored separation in public schools. The association was not reluctant to influence the Supreme Court in 1954 to disapprove “Brown V. Board of Education” which denied equality in education systems. The association induced protests against lynching laws which in the historical views encompassed activities of immorality as a result of favoritism. NAACP is critiqued to have influenced much activity in the American legislation such as influencing “Civil Rights Act of 1957, 1964 and the Voting Act in 1965” (Congressional Record, 2010).

Current Operations

In accordance to NAACP’s mission, it is true that the group majors to induce notions of equal rights for all and extensively defy racial discrimination. It is also certain that the group’s operations in the contemporary community concur with its original commitment of 1909 to shrink discrimination in order to deter favoritism. NAACP therefore conducts pervasive operations which are in particular directed in the community’s all-inclusive areas that characterize elements of inequality.

NAACP holds strategic operations to boost economic sustainability in all regions of the United States supposedly as included in ACT-SO a program which was initiated by Hooks (NAACP, 2017). The group’s intentions at the economic level are to address operational reforms that avails every individual equitable prospect to lead his or her dream in America in response to potentiality. This enumerates NAACP’s mission to cause equality of constitutional rights and desire to get rid of racial discrimination in the economic sector. Arguably, an economic sector of such nature provides equal opportunities which in turn back economic success, financial security and sustainability thus minimizing ranges of social disparities.

Education is a comprehensive responsibility in NAACP’s commitments in the contemporary American community. Over a long period supposedly since its launch, the group has been evidencing interests to reform education systems. The union insists on provision of free and high quality education for everyone in public schools. Additionally, the group has with consistency fought for democracy in matters concerning health services. For instance, it has been negotiating the need to compromise health processes with the government for the sake of discouraging inequalities in various health systems across America.

Public safety has prevailed as a major concern in the United States as a result of discrimination and inequality Nevertheless, the Criminal Justice is prone to notions of illegitimacy which in most occurrences emerge as a result racial discrimination and violation of human rights. NAACP therefore engages in the enforcement of federal, state and also military laws in order to diminish racial discrimination and social inequality within the two delicate departments in the United States.

Voting rights encompass severe threats with lack of equitable management which in due course lead to unfair political representation. NAACP plays a very important role of protecting and also enhancing voting rights in order to facilitate fair representations. It therefore majors the protection of democracy in order to enhance equity, democratic engagement and increase civic engagement.

Balancing of demographic aspects in the comprehensive community enhances equity and also discourages any forms of discrimination. Therefore, NAACP sources support from both governmental and non governmental agencies aimed to facilitate recruitments, training and engagement of both adults and youths so as to equip them with equitable skills of participating in various projects of community development.

Leadership

            The group operates under the Board of Director’s Leadership with a networked form of leadership. The group’s leadership is organized in a form that is able to administrate regional and also state activities. Regional and State leaders works under the directories of the Board of Directors’ in order to enhance operational unity. It is the mandate of the Board of Directors’ to provide effective programs in order to ensure that leaders at local, state and national levels acquire relevant education regarding participatory plans with efficacy (Gladwell,2010).

Methods of Gaining Influence

Notably, the group is known to publicize inappropriateness of discrimination and its emphasis to abolish civil laws that raise notions of immorality in the community. For that reason, the group initiates definite programs that specifically encompass speechmaking, publicizing and other methods viable to importune the crucial issue to the public. The group as well encounters the issue by the use of magazines such as the “Crisis” that was used by Du Bois to spread information regarding racism and equality (In Heath, 2010). Additionally, NAACP uses courts as an effective channel of resisting segregation of civil rights and racial inequality in various societal affairs. For example, NAACP follows court processes up to date to enforce enhancement of laws in order to housing discrimination across America (Vogue, 2015).

Contributions

From its beginnings, NAACP depends on public including its member contributions to success its tasks (Bynum, 2013). . This includes individuals and agencies who in one way another aim to defend civil rights in the community. The group therefore asks the community to make charitable donations in order to enhance its core mission.

Public Opinion

According to (NAACP 2017), NAACP has over since evidenced purpose accomplishment in various states across United States. The group’s major commitment includes the need to ensure sameness of rights and abolishment of racial discrimination in United States. NAACP has been playing essential roles in various activities in order to curb immoralities. The group has fought for reforms to pull out notions of inequality and racial discrimination from different aspects of the U.S community. For instance, it has enhanced economic sustainability, education, health, public safety, voting rights for all individuals that apparently match with its initial mission to establish equality and diminish racial discrimination in public sectors.

NAACP receives positive opinions from the public since it has caused reputable changes in the community which has highly enhanced people’s welfare. This can be proved by the fact that NAACP has sufficiently familiarized people with constitutional rights particularly civil rights hence people have opportunities to engage in activities that suits their desires with equality regardless of racial differences. On the other hand, the group receives much support from the public through contributions which declares its important contribution to the American people. Additionally, leadership of the group has over long stuck to its core mission which declares its positivity to the public. For instance, its leadership includes people of different races and provides equity in all leadership levels.

The group has an effective management that enables it to accomplish its mission to the community. Importantly, all units starting from national levels to regional levels operate under the guidelines from Board of Directors’ which is led by an elected chairman. This eliminates contradictory in the formulation and enactment of plans in all units across United States. The group’s leadership is flexible enough in response to its ability to include staffs at regional levels in all states which increases operational efficiency. For instance, each unit in various states is attached to specific operations which facilitate staff communication between members and leading staff. Socialization of staffs with staffs enables the group to act in accordance to people’s needs since it enables acquirement of immediate member feedback. For this reason, NAACP is verified to beneficial to the general public rather than to a definite group of people.

Conclusion

The main objective of an interest group is to influence changes including public policies in order to modify people’s welfare in the community. Therefore, NAACP is an essential organization in the United States in reference to its purpose of establishing parity of rights whereas abolishing racial discrimination. For instance, under its support for the people, instances of racial discrimination have tarnished in various institutions such as schools and in economic fields. Additionally, its support has influenced significant reforms of civil rights such as voting rights and renewal of justice which has in turn terminated perspectives of favoritism.

Blacks vs. white unemployment rates

The data indicates that unemployment rate among the black is higher than their white counterparts across all ages. The highest rate of unemployment is indicated among the young people for all the ages but among this population the blacks forms the largest part of the population. As such the rate of young and black individuals is almost twice the rate of unemployment among the young white people which shows the high rate of discrepancies.  These kinds of discrepancies can be observed across all the individuals of working age group, so that even the black people have their unemployment rate being even higher than the Hispanic or Latino people.

The kind of employment discrepancies indicated in the above data can be an indicator of various issues affecting the labor market, in regard to the black community and the white community in the market. These could include differences in industrial distribution of white and black workers to the skill gaps existing between them.  The main empirical regularities indicated by the presented data cannot be attributed to existing race discrimination models across the labor markets but some other far reaching factors influencing the employability of individual persons.   High rates of unemployment among a certain group can be attributed to lack of skills due to low levels of education or lack of equality in regard to distribution of resources (Baumol & Blinder, 108). Another explanation is poor performance in the economy which does not favor the black community so that the black people are the last to be employed while the economy is doing fine and the first to be released in a poor economy.

Works cited

Baumol, William & Blinder,Allan. Macroeconomics:  Principles and Policy. New York NY:  Cengage Publishing.13 Ed. 2015.  107-110

African American

            Racism had become a major problem in the American society in the 20^th century.  There were two main African American leaders who had wished to help in the control of these issues.  Though they were completely in rival, both of these leaders had already made many changes in the separation of America. This was a result of the rival between these two leaders who were well known to the students and the historians of the African American community. Comparing and the contrasting the ideals of Washington and the Du Bois, we can also get the difference between the two communities and how they dealt with the discrimination (Kennedy, 2005). 

            In the 20^th centuries, there were many different looms that were based on the equality of the blacks.  The both communities felt that the African Americans needed equality.  The subjects of the African Americans such as the W.EB and the Du Bois had views which were against to each other which made them fix things in different ways.  This made them have the feeling that the African American needed equality.  Booker Washington felt that the way that they would have gained this was just through education.  This made him feel that the foundation of Tuskegee school would make the African Americans use the education to get into the working conditions and have equality in marketing (Kennedy, 2005).

             W.E.B Du Bois was one of the Washington opponents and had the feeling that the context of Washington would make them more passive.  These opponents felt that the method that Washington was using would take a long time and this would make the blacks toil more for the whites without any demands or the objections.  The strategy that the African Americans could use would be that of demanding a more radical approach to the problem that they had (Kennedy, 2005).      

Reference

Kennedy, D. M. (2005). The American Pageant: A History of the Republic: Vol 1, To 1877. Houghton Mifflin College Div.

Topic: Determinants of Perceived Skin Color Discrimination in Latin America

Discrimination is an issue which has contributed to social problems in Latin America. Factor such as gender difference, age and race causes discrimination where people overlook the ethical standards and policies and acts unfavorably to minorities (Canache et al, 2014). Discrimination occurs for various reasons and the author asserts that people are discriminated due to skin color with relation to race, ethnicity and social context. People focus on observable characteristic such as language and facial structure and White believes that they cannot socialize with black color   due to their low status. For example, Black students in high education are biased because of their skin-color and   they do not achieve their educational goals. In the community, Black people do not get access to quality health care due their low economic status (Canache et al, 2014). Generally, skin color discrimination is an issue of concern as minority group is biased due to their race and ethnicity.  

In social world, racial discrimination has made black Americans to live a difficult life. Despite the fact that racial policies are being implemented; there is a high level of discrimination in Latin America. Whites view the Blacks as social and political minorities and they also term them as low-status groups (Canache et al, 2014).  It is a hard task to create race relation since the American regime does not have trust in Blacks but rather views them with distrust lens. There should be coordination actions to enhance trust and the government should value the important of race.

 I have a life experience based on Black discrimination and this happened when I was in high school. I was in a national school where cultural diversity was inevitable and intercultural communication was a key factor for student to create good interaction. Though diversity can help students to achieve their goals, in my life I experienced that minority students were unsatisfied with learning outcomes as they lacked a close relationship with teachers. Minority students experienced exclusion and racism and these issues affected their lives. Particularly when minority entered in the school community, they were unwelcomed and faced harassments and they could not interact with others in social context as they feared the hostile environment. I experienced that the school leadership could not promote diversity and students could not recognize the difference. Minority groups were not allowed to raise any idea and they were forced to follow the White culture of which it was not easy to change cultural beliefs without peaceful interaction. Discrimination did not only happen in school community but also in the society where minorities lived. Black people were denied their rights and they were controlled by White dominance due to lack opportunity to express their views.

Conflict theory can be applied in the life experience. This is because it explains the social life and more important it communicates about conflict between groups. In different groups, conflict arises as a result of inequality, class, age and gender difference and these contributes to disadvantages in social context (Bartos & Wehr, 2002). Conflict theory explains that people who cause conflict believes that individual of different race and class should receive unflavored treatment since they are less educated and they come from low class status. Due to the difference in values and cultural beliefs, conflict arises since the groups have different ideas and behaviors. The different groups violate the law while trying to argue on the acceptable behavior which should be followed (Bartos & Wehr, 2002)

Reference

Canache, D., Hayes, M., Mondak, J. J., & Seligson, M. A. (2014). Determinants of Perceived Skin-Color

Discrimination in Latin America. Journal Of Politics, 76(2), 506-520.

doi:10.1017/S0022381613001424

Bartos, O. J., & Wehr, P. E. (2002). Using conflict theory. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Connections of Gates’s Assessment of Expectations of Some Younger People Admiring Sports Figures with Issues of Races and Class

            According to Gates, issues of races and class affected the African Americans’ participation in sports. Some of the Africans, who were successful, had obtained ownership of property and wealth and their class determined their success (Gates, 3). Therefore, people who owned property had a sense of belonging; they studied, saved, worked and even had a right to vote whereas those who did not own property had no any right and they did not achieve education. Therefore, that is the reason why few African Americans participated in athletes and the expectations of young people to participate in sports was ruined as a result of their lower class due to poverty.

            According to (Gates, 1), there are few professional athletes in the US compared to other professionals such as lawyers, dentists and doctors. As a matter of fact, African American youngster becomes a professional athlete by chance. Thus, the blind pursuit of attaining in sports is having an upsetting effect on African Americans. There is a failure of public schools to educate athletes and this has affected so much (Gates, 3). Young athletes especially young African American athletes are ill served. Most of them are functionally not educated yet it is a necessity for one to become an athlete. A small percentage of black athletes earn their degrees at college level. According to the statistics, for each successful educated African American athlete, thousands of them die and some get wounded. This is possibly because of their poor status. However, young African Americans continue aspiring for careers as athletes. Therefore, it would of great importance when those successful black athletes play a role of supporting and educating the young people no matter athletes or non athletes (Gates, 3).

Work cited

 Gates, H, L. Forty Acres and a gap in Wealth. Published by the New York Times. (2007).

Gates H, L, Jr. Delusions of Grandeur. (1991).

            Muhammad Ali

            Muhammad Ali is well established throughout the world for his boxing tactics and victory.  In most cases, he is termed to be a superhero as his skills still proves to be unique till today.  His boxing speed was exceptional and with the unique skills in both in his mouth and in the boxing ring he has become the present superman.  Muhammad Ali was previously known as Clay Cassius and he later changed his name to Muhammad when he transformed to a Muslim (Micklos, 2010). Muhammad Ali is reflected to be the world’s history boxer based on his enduring fame and victory, well-structured skills in the ring as well as the fascinating personality.

            Muhammad Ali is doubtfully the best proficient boxer who has ever existed.  Muhammad Ali’s life is characterized by three major traits.  The first trait is the no fear attitudes which he used to intimidate his challengers outside the fighting rings (Micklos, 2010).  The second was the skills that he held while in the boxing ring and how he continuously won numerous fights before finally meeting his major match.  The third trait is based on Ali’s struggles with a long-term ailment referred to as Parkinson which is an ailment that does not have any cure (Micklos, 2010).

            Muhammad Ali will always be remembered for his entertaining and demonstrative boxing and living. The life of Muhammad Ali turned to be among the best and most controversial living of a sports figure of all period (Micklos, 2010).  He demonstrated so much devotion and attitude to Muslim religion which turned him into many individual’s role models. Ali Muhammad came to the attention of the world first in the year 1960 after winning the Light-Heavy Weight Championship Olympic.  After he won the Sonny Liston’s Championship in 1964 he began to generate a series of continuous headlines.  Ali Muhammad becomes the first fighting boxer in the world to get paybacks from the international television which made him even a more visible figure to the whole world (Micklos, 2010).  His second Liston fight developed more controversy after Liston proved to stay down at the beginning of the first round.  However, Muhammad proved everyone wrong by turning up to be a champion in the fighting world through accepting all the challenges presented by each heavyweight that approached him (Micklos, 2010).

            In 1967 during the Vietnam War Muhammad title was stripped because he declined military service on the context of religion (Micklos, 2010). In his response, he claimed that if he was going to the war and possibly dying there so that the black individuals would attain equality, freedom, and justice he would not even hesitate. He stated that he joining the military would be assisting in killing the innocent and poor persons in other nations while the same thing was happening to the black race in America. Muhammad was permitted to resume boxing in 1970 and the Supreme Court upheld his conviction appeal in 1971 (Micklos, 2010).  In 1974 he gained the championship after boxing with foreman George. In 1978 he lost the crown to Spinks Leon but later gained it the same year (Micklos, 2010).

            In summary, Muhammad’s unstoppable character was broken by two distinct moments. The first instance was when he was defeated physically by Frazier Joe and the second one was the unfortunate Parkinson’s ailment diagnosis (Micklos, 2010). Today Muhammad is described as a humanitarian as most of his earning has been devoted to research on Parkinson and its treatment. Despite the defeat of the unstoppable character, Muhammad is still remained to be the world’s best boxer that has ever existed.

            Reference

Micklos, J. (2010). Muhammad Ali: "I am the greatest". Berkeley Hts, NJ: Enslow Publishers.

American narrative

For about four centuries of the American history, two conflicts have been witnessed between two sets of values in form of a competition. One narrative argues that  acting for the common good should be the guideline for the political as well as the social behavior. The other narrative argues that individual freedom or generally individualism should be the model that ought to govern both the political and social life (Chafe, 2012).

According to Dr. Chafe's, the controversy between the two narratives is purely based on racism with the blacks being the subjects of the debates. The blacks were actually the target of the narrative when they were denied the right to vote with an aim of maintaining the political path (Finsterbusch, 2012). Gorge bush the former president claimed to extend the conservative tradition that gave a chance to the big companies to uncontrollably cherish at the expense of the small ones (Duffy & Krolikowski, 2008).

The tension between the two narratives has recently increased since the presidential elections of 2008 after Barrack Obama became the president. When he successfully passed the national health care reforms the narrative of common good became powerful than before (Chafe, 2012). The republican and the democratic parties which are the dominant political parties in America have been the drivers of the two narratives.

The ending of his reign will soon become historic as leaders try to standardize the imbalanced state of the narratives. I tend to agree with Dr. Chafe's since his argument is based on substantial and credible evidence concerning the two narratives. He however leaves the question undefined but the argument he brings points out clearly about racism which is as old as the country (Chafe, 2012).

References

Chafe W. H., (2012) The American Narrative: Is There One and What Is it? http://www.ahsd.org/social_studies/williamsm/The%20American%20Narrative.pdf

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Finsterbusch, K. (2012). Annual editions: Social problems 11/12. New York: McGraw-Hill.

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Duffy, K. G., & Krolikowski, G. E. (2008). Social psychology. Dubuque, Iowa: McGraw Hill.

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Africana Studies

            As noted by Brent Edwards the term Diaspora is under-theorized in the present world where recourse and politics are used in identification of ethnicity which is revoked regularly.  This is mainly because Diaspora theory is weighted down with political denotation as well as surrounding. Brent Edwards makes the suggestion that Diaspora can be termed to be less of a situation that is historically set than just a set of several ethnic practices. This involves all the correspondences, claims as well as collaboration via which the intellectuals of blacks pursue a range of global alliances (Gomez, 2005). Edwards explicates the general operation of the Diaspora through black wealth tracking of the print culture that is transnational that exists amid all world wars.  The theory of Diaspora considers all highly and divergent ways of race imaging which works beyond language and nation barriers.  This therefore works to reveal the significance of translation which argues that Diaspora politics are legible beyond everything in negotiating the efforts of the differences that exist among the African descent population in the world (Gomez, 2005).  The strength of the Diasporas definition is that throughout the exploration the author tries to resist racism by embracing modernity and incorporating African descendant’s culture.  It is characterized by unity as well as modernity as it explanations are derived from the world practices from previous to the current living.  It is limited by the fact that it attempts to embrace a single race of the African descent thus increasing bias chances (Rodney, N.p).  This is equally similar with the theory of the blacks which attempts to exclude and explain the living of the blacks thus excluding other races.  This therefore illustrates racism at the highest order due to the focus that is given to a single group.

            African studies are a research field and the scholarship that is generally about black individuals. This is thus aimed at advancing the blacks interests and in order for this to be accomplished fully it must therefore be footed in the experience of Africans, the world views, values, norms, perspectives and so on.  This therefore implies that the origin was based on considering Africa as the measure of everything. African studies began in the 16^th and 15^th century with the start of slave trade approach (Klein, 2001).  Africans as well as the individuals who belong to Africa are the most understood and written about in regard to all the individuals in the world.  The Europeans therefore cannot only involved on colonization of most worlds parts but they were also involved in colonization of information about people and the world.  The Africana studies were mainly influenced by the social setting of Africans cultures and background.  Through the strain of colonialism and slavery this failed in breaking the connection amid the Africans who were living in African and those that had been taken as slaves and were living in the western nations.  The African studies involved five major   configurations which involved nationality, hemispheric of the African American who was living in the western nations, African Diaspora, global blacks as well as African Diasporas research (Klein, 2001).  The studies were aimed at addressing several issues faced by Africans in the western nations which include the argument on whether the equality emphasis should be fully devoted to the three hemispheric locations. The first four models proponents were mainly concerned of the African continent omission as this focused on Diasporas community’s   dissimilarities of their floating and unstable identities.  The demands of those activists who called for the Africana studies were to raise awareness among the African individuals, to increase knowledge in regard to their rights as well as earn equality as well as identity.  The condition was mainly influenced by   colonization as well as slavery which made the living conditions of the Africans undesirable.

African studies pattern inherited the black studies movement legacy of the belatedly 1960’s and early 1970’s which led to the development of Africana and Rican Puerto department. The black studies have evolved to African or even African studies as individuals of the descendants of Africa have comfortably identified with political and intellectual energy of the African continent (Aldridge, & Young, 2000).  The Africana studies is a discipline or a program that attempts to research, explain, interpret, provide a cultural articulation, political, social, and economic as well as a spiritual experience of individuals of the individuals in Africa.  The Africana studies can thus be termed as pan-Africans in its strategy and focus as it seeks to emphasize the existing connection amid African individual’s as well as their culture. This therefore attempts to knowledge the dissimilarities which have evolved due to historical actualities colonial oppression, geographical situation and cultural interaction.  The evolution of African studies to African American was an attempt to try and explicit the differences that are between the Africans and the Americas in terms of identity as well as culture.  The black studies was mainly purposed at addressing the issues that the Africans who are viewed as blacks faces due to lack of a clear perspective as well as identity (Aldridge, & Young, 2000).

The Atlantic slave trade was crucial in impairing the capability of Africa in developing in terms of social, political and economic stability. The European arrival on the West African as well as their general establishment of the ports for slaves in different regions of the African continent was crucial in triggering a process that was continuous for the exploitation of Africa’s labor, human resources as well as commodities (Eltis & Engerman, 2011).  This was thus an exploitative commerce which influenced the African religious and political aristocracies, biracial elite and warrior classes who were able of making gains from the trade of slaves for participating in the oppression of their own persons.  On the other hand the Europeans obtained huge benefits from the Atlantic trade system because it permitted them to obtain raw materials in masses which were crucial in feeding the industrial revolution. This was a detriment of all the African communities as their capability of transforming their individual production modes into entrepreneurial economy was halted seriously by the exploitation (Eltis & Engerman, 2011).

The Atlantic slave trade played a crucial part in the development of capitalism emergence as the slaves were utilized as the western machinery and financial production systems.  The slave trade led to the emergence of capitalism as well as racial superiority (Klein, 2001). The whites considered themselves superior thus exploiting the potential of the Africans who held no authority over their lives.  The slave trade period hoped the white race to affirm their racial superiority over the black people which made it easier to understand why the blacks were treated as slaves. This made the African communities to consider themselves as inferior because they lost the capability to develop, their culture, identity as well as confidence.  This later resulted in destructions as the efforts to procure slaves resulted in wars.  The trade led to the arrest and death of many individuals as the African culture’s ability to improve was distorted. This distracted the general meaning that individuals gave to the world as well as the surrounding as uncertainty increased.  In the modern era when industrialization took over in the western nations the relationship between the Africans and the African Diasporas was affected. This is mainly because the slave trade created a psychological impact which was crippling (Gomez, 2005).  This caused a constant anxiety among the Africans communities. The anxiety was caused by the fear of being a victim and being herded away to the western nations like animals which meant that they were never to return home.  Several Africans developed the fear and belief that the whites captured the slaves so that they would eat them which destroyed their relationships.

            References

            Aldridge, D. P., & Young, C. (2000). Out of the revolution: The development of Africana studies. Lanham, Md: Lexington Books.

            Eltis D., & Stanley L. Engerman. (2011). The Cambridge World History Of Slavery. Cambridge university press. Pdf

Gomez, M. A. (2005). Reversing sail: A history of the African Diaspora. New York [u.a.: Cambridge Univ. Press.

Martin A. Klein. (2001). The Slave Trade And Decentralized Societies. Cambridge university press. Pdf

Rodney W. (N.p). The West Africa and the Atlantic Slave Trade. East African Publisher. Pdf