Anthropology - Page #2

The African Anthropocene

The African Anthropocene

Introduction

The whole world is in the anthropogenic age where human activities have changed the globe in terms of modification of the landscapes. The age of humanity which rooted back millions and billions of years has brought a planetary transition which has never happened before. Humans have brought massive changes through various activities such as nuclear testing, radioactive deposits and more. In understanding the root cause of Anthropocene crisis, the author asserts that during the period of colonialism and industrialization, Africa extracted gold and uranium and exported them to Europe and North America, and the waste materials from the power plant during the extraction have polluted the environment for many years. Since this period, Africa became the source of gold and uranium which are distributed to the planet. However, despite the economic benefit, the author asserts that Africa has become a ‘hollow land’ and the increase in extraction has increased the air pollution. Human activities have contributed to a great impact on the Earth’s geology since the industrial revolution, and in order to address the Anthropocene concepts and its effect on our environment and health, both natural and social science should study the natural and human history and more important, allow African states have an international autonomy in controlling their natural resources.

In analyzing the ‘African Anthropocene’, the author argue that the world shifted to an new era characterized by Anthropocene or in other words, the new era is dominated by humans where human activities have changed both physical and natural environment (Hecht, 1). There is a big difference between the Holocene epoch and the Anthropocene epoch in that the former was characterized by a conducive physical and nature environment but the latter is characterized by great extinction, prevalence of artificial organic molecules and disruption of natural processes. The author provides a comprehensive understanding of the root cause of Anthropocene by stating that gold and uranium were used as a mean of exchange during the industrial expansion (Hecht, 1). During 20^th century, South Africa extracted larger quantities of minerals and gold and these human activities welcomed a large number of migrants who extracted gold. The extraction created poorly ventilated stopes and many people died due to rock bursts. The human activities reshaped the topography on that during the extraction, rock residues were dumped and this led to pollution problems. The Anthropocene crisis continues to increase in that the efforts of botanists to control the dumps to avoid erosion was underfunded. The problems of pollution increases since the industries pollute the environment knowingly and finally, scientists lack resources and funds to control the pollution (Hecht, 1). The big problem that has been contributed by the human activities is ‘hollow land’ or in other words the extraction of minerals has created a stope where water gets in and reacts with pyrite to form acidified water which mixes with heavy metals. The water rises onto the surface and residents use the water for daily purposes. The burning of coal has also led to air pollution since during the process carbon; sulphur dioxide and more are released in the atmosphere. This has led to devastating consequences such as illnesses and premature deaths especially in low-and middle-income region (Hecht, 1).

In general view of the Anthropocene crisis, Anthropocene crisis started during the industrial revolution and in trying to address these matters, the social sciences and humanities should understand humans as telluric forces and how human activities have contributed to global environmental shifts (Hamilton, 32). The importance of focusing on these two issues is that in considering humans and their involvement in changing the environment is that there is evidence of emission of greenhouse gases, changes in solar activity and more. The point is that the natural and human histories are one and the bond that combines them is the humans’ telluric force. In discussing matters that relate to culture and history, economy, politics and more, humanities and social sciences need to study techno-natural orders. In Anthropocene, it is important to understand that the new industrial order led to connection of humankind and earth and the power of humans have changed the state of things (Hamilton, 36). History is characterized by an endless struggle of man against nature. Note that the increased problem of environmental damage have been influenced by natural and social sciences where naturals sciences are associated with steady laws while social sciences offers humans with freedom to any natural determination (Hamilton, 44). Both understand the world from different dimension and that is why it is important to consider both human and earth history in discussing the Anthropocene concepts since they are deeply interconnected. Apart from focusing on humans and the telluric force in understanding the Anthropocene concepts, the authors state that it is also important to include natural studies which help understand the global environment shifts shown by the biodiversity loss, hotter climate, and ocean acidification among other natural evidences (Hamilton, 48). The author says that social scientists have focused on ‘Capitalocene’ which only addresses things from social, cultural and political perspective and ignores historical concepts. Even though social science try to connected social and nature thing, they lack knowledge that is needed in understanding things such as radioactive particles, economical activities, molecular composition, and much more. Thus, the point is social science and natural science should study the Anthropocene concepts and more on planetary transformation (Hecht, 1).

On imperialism and racism, Magdoff & Williams assert that social-ecological crisis is contributed by capitalism. First, it is important to note that social-ecological crisis occurs when there overpopulation, human activities toward destructiveness and poor policy choices (Magdoff & Chris, 49). On overpopulation, a nation may lack enough land for all people and so they end up using Earth’s resources and their activities not only cause resource depletion but they also contribute to environmental pollution. Due to overpopulation, there is unequal distribution of resources and this means that 10% of wealth people in a nation will use 60% of natural resources and the end result is environmental pollution (Magdoff & Chris, 52). In trying to solve these underlying causes of social-ecological crisis, some people say that the root cause is on the ‘growth problem’ where neoprimitivists argue that all people should live a simpler life characterized by hunting and gathering while ‘green capitalism’ argue that people should consumer ‘green stuff’ in order to stop polluting the environment (Magdoff & Chris, 49). However, all these solution cannot solve the problem unless the real cause of the problem which is the capitalist system is addressed. Capitalism, which is the act of owning a property and using things such as infrastructure and natural resources to produce goods and in turn, create normal as well as economic profit, leads to imperialism (Magdoff & Chris, 51). The authors assert that capitalism has contributed to imperialism where in 21st century, nation-states or rather capitalists use political and economic power to establish a geopolitical interest, to exploit resources, to use low-cost of production and to produce goods and services with an aim of creating national profit. Capitalism is the root cause of social-ecological problems in that first, the main goal of capitalism is to maximize profit and this is achieved through human interaction with the natural environment such as oil drilling, extraction of natural resources, food production and so on. These human activities cause disturbances in that there are unlimited resources, and environmental and social concern in controlling the pollution is minimal (Hecht, 1). The capitalist economy has many ‘externalities’ simply because the method of production and energy are needed and the more tools and technology needed the more damage to the natural world occur. Given that capitalism focus on profit, it increases income distribution and gender inequality between wealth and poor and people of different races. For example in U.S, the rate of white ownerships is 72% while Africans Americans owns 42% (Magdoff & Chris, 72). The root cause of inequality is not technological change or lack of education but rather it is rooted from power where capitalism focuses on profit and growth while poor lack resources.

Hucht relates the Anthropocene crisis with imperialism and racism in that during the industrial capitalism, Europe and North America were interested with industrial expansion and revenue maximization and for this reason, they increased in resources productivity. In other words, it focused on natural resources on the production system in the western world (Hecht, 1). The western economic system has contributed in environmental destruction in that by using economic and military power to derive natural resources, it uses the environment that it exist in as a place for economic expansion. Due to the overpopulation and limited natural resources in the western world, they exploited the natural resources from Africa and the end results were environmental disaster such as water and air pollution and climate change (Hecht, 1). Despite the fact that that there is a dramatic growth of economy in western world, nations such as Africa continue to lag behind and suffer from illness and premature death due to environmental pollution that occurred during extraction of natural resources The author also relates the imperialism with racism in that during the industrial capitalism, U.S was interested with industrial expansion and undervalued the Africans or the people of color thereby creating racial tension. Capitalism created social injustice and heavy burdens to Africans and this nation remain underdeveloped where as U.S is a developed nation (Hecht, 1).

Conclusion

The planet is in a new geological epoch where human activities have interfered with the Earth’s geology causing environmental changes including climate change. During the industrial capitalism, nations such Europe and U.S extracted natural resources from Africa. Whereas Africa suffered from huge devastating effects, these nations developed economically. Athropocene is characterized by anthropogenic warming, species extinction, prevalence of artificial organic molecules, landscape transformation, resource extraction and disruption of natural processes. These activities have destroyed human and natural world resources where human activities have changed the functioning of the earth. Africa continues to offer developed and developing countries with these resources and the more it exports the resources the more it increases environmental problems such as air pollution which lead to illnesses and premature death. The industrial revolution which was characterized by imperialism and racism is the root cause of environmental degradation in Africa and in addressing the current predicament, natural and social sciences should put concern on human and natural history and provide Africa with internal autonomy that was overwhelmed by capitalism dependence.

Work cited

Hecht Gabrielle. The African Athropocene. 2018. Retrieved from: https://mronline.org/2018/02/08/the-african-anthropocene/

Hamilton Clive, Bonneuil Christophe & Gemenne Francois. The Anthropocene and the Global

Environmental Crisis: Rethinking Modernity in a New Epoch. Routledge, 2015

Magdoff, Fred, and Chris Williams. Creating an Ecological Society: Toward a Revolutionary

Transformation. New York: Monthly Review Press, 2017. Print.

1803 Words 6 Pages

Monastic Life in the Middle Ages

Monastic Life in the Middle Ages

Monastery was a building where individuals worshiped, also known as home thus; they devoted their time and life to their creator. Monks are the people who lived in the monastery and, it was self contained suggesting that anything in the monks was provided by the community. The people of medieval lived their own life whereby, prepared garments plus grew food so they had no need for the outside world. The only known reason to why they focused on God was because they were isolated. During the middle ages monasteries were spread all over Europe. Monks in the monasteries were some individuals in the middle ages who were capable of writing and reading (Binggeli 97).

The monks were essential since they took part in generating education globally. However, in their journey to spread education, the monks at middle age considered writing as well as recording of various events. It was at the middle age that they played an essential part in the community by helping individuals. . Middle age monasteries had a main building whereby, they were grouped with interior courts Not only did they focus on the Supreme Being, they also had the obligations of feeding the poor, taking care of the sick as well as offering education to all boys in the community (Cels 102).

In relevance to literature Monastery history is in form of allegory whereby; it is in form of a story though uses various symbolic figures. The preponderance of the monk’s days in the core age was spent praying, bible study as well as meditating. The act is relevant to literature allegory because it shows individual’s believe as well as truthiness. Devotions are another act the middle age engaged in whereby; they spent their day working in the monastery. The monks performed different chores depending on their talents plus interests. Some people did the work willingly worked in the land farming food for other monks. Other people could not be left behind thereby; they would spend their day copying manuscripts as well as making books. The chores people performed is all devotion which is a term in literature, refereed to Christians who does thing to help themselves as well as grow closer relationship with their creator (Binggeli 88).

The middle age is highly identified with the religious manifestation, which in literature form is referred to as symbolic. The people used majestic spires, flying buttresses, copious carving as well as glass windows as assign of symbolizing individual’s faithfulness. Nuns plus monks, pilgrimages, saint as well as crusades are good examples of additional evidences that the medieval people were bound by their Christian faith. The higher middle age was referred to as the age of faith and, there was no separation between medieval culture as well as the Christian culture. All form of art and literature such as festivals and rituals was in the medieval culture context. Unlike it is done today, calendar dating was used as saint names rather than in form of numbers. In medieval culture speech was used just like it is today a form of literature though; it was used with Christian references only (Gasquet 99).

In the middle age during the monks’ days, there were several religious opportunities for women. Nunneries were introduced for young girls whose families were wealthy, in order to provide grant equivalent to one for matrimony. In medieval culture widows, unmarried older women, orphans, illicit daughters as well as girls with birth imperfections were not discriminated since they were also allowed in the converts. Most of respected individuals in the middle age came from the monastic orders thereby; they were able to generate the ideal of simplicity as well as chastity thus dominated philosophies (Smith 54).

The monastic community endeavored in forming independent as well as self-supporting thereby; the middle age had no necessitate of going away from limits. In course of time, the monastery augmented in wealth as well as numeral of middle age thus; formed a huge establishment that symbolized the massive wall. During the medieval period churches performed various plays which were mysterious. In relevance to literature, plays are mainly performed in theatres with the aim of narrating stories, entertaining as well as teaching individuals. In the medieval eras these plays were aimed at teaching individuals different stories of the bible. The plays performance became widespread in Europe even at the end of 15^th century whereby; they developed into morality play. In the 16^th centuries theaters were introduced whereby; the monks viewed it as wicked and the churches planned on diminishing it. In the 20^th century churches were now advanced especially the evangelical, realized of the usefulness of theaters as the best form of outreach as well as a compelling art form (Beach 118).

Monastic culture in the monk’s days led to the widespread of productions in the religious manuscript as well as literacy within monastic communities. In the European society, the medieval middle age was the most highly regarded members. The middle aged was expected to have the ability of reading and writing especially in manuscripts. Medieval monasteries boasted prodigious libraries whereby; the writing rooms were all full with individuals producing decorative. Monastic communities developed in that they acted as educational centers, infirmaries as well as lodges for their travelers. However, the medieval culture still remains the source of scholarly fascination in English (Beach 114).

After the monks personnel was dispersed plus their structures took apart they, were still energetic effort to preserve their treasure. The medieval fortune involved physical symbols like the decorative objects, their vestments as well as manipulated script. In relevance to literature the physical items are referred to as symbolic since they are meant in presenting certain things in deep meaning. English in the monasteries is among the most favored, especially for the middle age. The number of monks in the community had predominantly sources of revenue which were stable thereby; able to provide higher education for the middle age (Smith 56).

The middle age was involved in the act of collecting taxes biblically, which was considered as a manual labor. Monks were active in everything they did and, improving their grammar and spelling was highly recognized. Medieval monastery also consisted of vows, which the monks took while they entered the order. The vows were form of symbols which represented their dedication of life to the monastery. The order indicated that they were to give up all their worldly fortune and devote their lives to the Supreme Being. Other vows the middle age minks took represented poverty, chastity as well as obedience (Binggeli 87).

The monastery sought to establish an independent as well as self-reliant community whereby; the monks did not require anything from outside. Moreover, the middle age started as a small rank and, it grew faster in terms of wealth as well as population. The monk was secure since, it also involved a power structure in the community. Medieval society grew at a rapid rate and position thus; generating increase of wealth (Beach 113).

Just like style is used in literature genre, the monasteries used styles in worship, studying and also in labor to indicate their culture. Days were managed depending on the activities which were to begin with worship and end in the church (Smith 53).

All individuals in the monk were expected to attend all church services, which about two in the morning and the last one took place late in the evening. The day hours were long since they had to spend it studying the bible, praying as well as meditating privately. Middle age monasteries had a main building whereby, they were grouped with interior courts. In relevance to literature, bible is what the monks used and it has been highly appreciated as literature. Some bible versions in literature are considered as masterpiece in English writing style. In bible study, the middle age was implicated with knowledge probably from biblical stories. However, literature has recently involved retelling of biblical stories, with an aim of emphasizing their qualities (Gasquet 100).

Work Cited

Beach, Alison I. Manuscripts and Monastic Culture: Reform and Renewal in Twelfth Century Germany. Turnhout: Brepols, 2016. Print

Binggeli, Andre. Monastic Culture in Eastern Christianity, 300-1500. Place of publication not identified: Ashgate, 2014. Print.

Cels, Marc. Life in a Medieval Monastery. New York: Crabtree Pub, 2015. Print.

Gasquet, Francis A. Monastic Life in the Middle Ages with a Note on Great Britain and the Holy See 1792-1806. London: G. Bell, 2012. Print.

Smith, Katherine A. War and the Making of Medieval Monastic Culture. , 2013. Print.

1425 Words 5 Pages

Hominin Evolution

Hominin Evolution

Primate’s evolutions are specially the Hominidae and, apes led to huge impact on human. Though the image of hominidae evolution appears far from complete, the Darwin theory brings the assumption that earlier tools were made of perishable materials. The earliest hominin fossils appear to have bidedal whereby; there is no clear evidence showing there was a transition from Knuckle –walking to the locomotion modern age. For one to understand the best mechanism that makes locomotion an efficient form today, scientists have to first consider hominin bipedalism origin. Darwin theory on locomotion majors on defining earliest humans thereby, not strong enough in giving factors which might have driven evolution into bipedalism (Michael, Raichlen & Pontzer, 2007).

I would argue with the theory assuming that, if the early bipeds were highly exposed to sunlight, they would probably stand upright. I think that the pre-dipedal locomotion was prepared in their habitats unlike the Darwin theory which suggests that the primates might have been terrestrial quadrupeds, or even the today chimpanzees. The surrounding the primates lived on are the only possible for locomotion preparation, hominin adapted the running among branches as well as practiced standing upright to forego overhead (Michael, David & Pontzer , 2007).

Bipedal locomotion cannot be compared to our walking, because they appear different considering their bent knees and bent throughout. The result opts to be an awkward movement with unmarked mediolateral body, rather than, the modern human whose walking cycle are characterized by divergent phases. Bipedal appear to have led to the modern human locomotion, simply because while running they both seem to exert energy from the ground. The only difference is that the primates adopt a full stance with full extension of their limbs. The limbs of the bipedal seem to have a strange change, since they are longer and extend like the tree branches (Michael, David & Pontzer, 2007).

Neanderthals are the closest to the human extinct, because the primate’s appearance is similar to human. I would suggest that the only difference between the two is seen in their heights, size as well as morphological features. The height of the primates was shorter as compared to humans whereby; human body appeared large.DNA is a genetic difference discovered between the modern man and Neanderthal. Evidence on the genetic difference is driven from the fossils and archaeological, where difference in their separation is noticed. Considering the brains in both, Neanderthals was bigger compared to that of homo sapience. Despite their differences, there is no noticeable difference in their physical appearance considering their thicker bones (Bayertz, 2012).

Darwin theory on the origin of species gives clear evidences that, Neanderthals live in nuclear families. However, I tend to agree with this theory because the species bones shows that, they hand small population together. According to the evidences of their genetic differences to humans, the species genetic display shows that they lacked clear hybrids. I would support the genetic differences suggesting that, human infant’s growth rate take more time as compared to Neanderthal, which is rapid from child to adult. The morphological differences in both Neanderthals and modern human, does not clearly gives evidential details on the species. Moreover, similarity is seen in both whereby; Neanderthals are known to be using tools such as ‘stones and blades. The physical differences might be clear, but in terms of anatomy scientists are giving extinct that they are our closest cousins. The Darwin theory on DNA differences between, Neanderthals and human cannot be relied on because; it does not clear evidence why, the Neanderthals species disappeared while the human survived (Bayertz, 2012).

References

Sockol.D. Michael, Raichlen. A. David andPontzer Herman.(2007). Chimpanzee Locomotor Energetics and of Human Bipedalism.

Bayertz, K. (2012). Der aufrechte Gang: Eine Geschichte des anthropologischen Denkens. C.H.Beck.

629 Words 2 Pages

Why did modern humans develop dipedalism as our primary mode of locomotion?

Hominin Evolution

Why did modern humans develop dipedalism as our primary mode of locomotion?

Primate’s evolutions are specially the Hominidae and, apes led to huge impact on human. Though the image of hominidae evolution appears far from complete, the Darwin theory brings the assumption that earlier tools were made of perishable materials. The earliest himinin fossils appear to have bidedal whereby; there is no clear evidence showing there was a transition from Knuckle –walking to the locomotion modern age. For one to understand the best mechanism that makes locomotion an efficient form today, scientists have to first consider hominin bipedalism origin. Darwin theory on locomotion majors on defining earliest humans thereby, not strong enough in giving factors which might have driven evolution into bipedalism (Michael, Raichlen &Pontzer, 2007).

What behavior, morphological, and genetic differences separate Neanderthals from modern |human?

References

Sockol.D. Michael, Raichlen. A. David andPontzer Herman.(2007). Chimpanzee Locomotor Energetics and of Human Bipedalism.

Bayertz, K. (2012). Der aufrechte Gang: Eine Geschichte des anthropologischen Denkens. C.H.Beck.

649 Words 2 Pages

Iroquois creation story

Iroquois creation story

This myth puts a lot of focus on the theme of birth as being the beginning of creation .it represents the few stories of creation originating from cultures where birth is an indication of new life or even the genesis of life on this earth. In addition, a relationship is between animals and human is seen in the Iroquois myth, where role animals had a key role to play, and were perceived to be equal with humans. The story seems to tell an idea of a time when men and animals were living together with no social or economic tension existing. The water animals – turtle – in this story save the woman from falling into the water which had covered the earth and then built an island for her (Murtagh, 1). In this story, the theme of a supreme being does not appear and such there is no elaboration of the onset of creation. In addition, the story considers the creation of humans as having been from above and was only brought to the earth in their mother’s womb and was later born.

In many well known creation stories, there is an appearance of a supreme being who was always omnipresent. Infact, the stories involves many supernatural beings who were either gods or goddesses. While the woman in the Iroquois is seen as a Sky Woman, she is not presented as a supernatural being. Unlike the Iroquois myth, animals were just creatures like human in other stories like in Greek and played no role in creation. While the Iroquois story the world is shown to have existed prior to human life, the biblical creation story indicates the earth as having been formless (Kennedy, Leland and Person, 24).

References

Murtagh, L.Elements in Creation Myths. (n.d).1. Available at: http://dept.cs.williams.edu/~lindsey/myths/myths.html

Kennedy, J G, and Leland S. Person. The American Novel to 1870. , 2014.23-24 Print.

323 Words 1 Pages

Time capsule

Time capsule

Being a cultural anthropologist in search of a hidden time capsule from both Renaissance and the Age of Baroque period it is in my humanity to pursuits the task art , music, architecture, philosophy and literature in the time capsule. Once we discover the way about of the time capsule I hope I will be able to unlock some of these periods’ mysteries. The Renaissance is described as the economic and intellectual changes that occurred in European 14^th century to 16^th century. The Baroque age of 1600-1750 motion and interpreted the details to produce drama, tension, grandeur and exuberance from sculpture, painting, music and literature.

According to Cameron(1987), the time capsule that has been looked for long but we have been traveling the world and going on leads to possible hidden inside the time capsule from both eras. I will give an example of what I think is rumored in the art, music, architecture, philosophy and music. Creative perception is what probably required in the art by the artist and the audience in addition to human being motions. In Leonardo Da Vinc the last supper would be an art piece that would have been preserved from time in the period of Rena. For the Age of Baroque period I believe Jan Vermer’s Christ in the house of Mary and Martha would be the piece in the time capsule. These pieces of art from Renaissance and age of Baroque have impacted world events and cultural pattern of the time in a religious way.

Music is systematization of audible sound which used in entertainment. Both Renaissance and the Age of Baroque periods, music happened in traditional before modern technology. Jean Mouton from French composed music in Renaissance period. In the age of Baroque, an Italian composer by the name Jacopo Peri composed music. Both composers played a very important role in establishing the sound of music that reflect world event and cultural pattern of the time (Cameron, 1987).

During Renaissance architect was trained to help in raising of the status of the profession from skilled labor artist. An example of architecture in both Renaissance and Age of Baroque was among paintings. In the Renaissance, Van Eyck uses details piece to reflect and enhance the portrait’s esthetics. During the Age of Baroque Caravaggio who was an Italian was good in painting ceilings such of Sistine Chapel. The both time capsule reflected and drew to many interceptions. Events and cultural pattern are reflected in a way of designing by painting (Cameron, 1987).

In the Renaissance, philosophy rebirth of classical civilization and learning about enthusiasm for the occult was covered by the mankind. Corpus Hermeticum understood the philosophy and he introduced the purpose of change which was extremely rare copy in time of Renaissance. Philosophy in the Age of Baroque was regarded on Rene Descartes writing example rationalist and empiricist. The pattern of the time and cultural events are reflected by the understanding and changing of philosophy (Nussbaum, 1990).

Johannes Gutenburg invented the use of local vernacular languages instead of Greek or Latin which was used in Renaissance which was effective. Rumored contain in the first book was printed by Johannes by using of the printing press. In the time of Baroque, literature was recorded using metaphor and allegory. Atheneo de Grandesa in the time capsule is an example relief a feeling in representing literature of this period. This reflects world event and cultural pattern of the time with the different invention of literature (Nussbaum, 1990).

References

Cameron, D. (1987) Art and Its Double Life.' Flash Art 57(7) 1.

Nussbaum, M. (1990). Love’s Knowledge: Essays on Philosophy and Literature, New York, Oxford University Press, 1990

612 Words 2 Pages