U9 Hydrocele

Pathophysiology

There are three categories of hydroceles: in an interactive hydrocele, a clear processus vaginalis allows flow of peritoneal fluid inside the scrotum. This type of hydrocele is consequently linked to secondary inguinal hernias.

In a non-interactive hydrocele, a clear processus vaginalis exists, but there is no communication with the peritoneal cavity befalls (Pachl, De & Jawaheer, 2014). 

In a cord hydrocele, the tip of the tunica vaginalis is sub-standard. Processus vaginalis distal end correctly closes, however the mid part of the processus remains clear. Either the proximal end may be closed or opened, in this hydrocele (Palmer, & Palmer, 2014).  

In adolescents, hydroceles are usually in their second stage of growth, where they only grow but they do not affect the patient. In this stage the patient can only experience swelling on the testis, however it may not be painful at all. It may be caused by an acute scrotum injury, or may result after birth hence remaining resistant until adolescent stage (Brook et al, 2009).

Epidemiology

Over 80% of new-born male babies tend to have a clear processus vaginalis, which translates into the number of adolescents affected by the condition. In most children, hydroceles disappear with time, thus making the rate of adolescents with the disease to be low. However, in adolescent stage, the hydrocele may become very large to the point of being seen, then a surgery may be needed to terminate the hydrocele (Pachl, De & Jawaheer, 2014). In case of treatment, the required surgical repair is known as definitive management. Different methods of performing surgical hydrocelectomy may include removal of the hydrocele or otherwise, plication of the hydrocele wall. A surgery may however not be essential if the scrotum does not become large. Medications may be administered to the patient, thus leading to the removal of the hydrocele (Brook et al, 2009).

Physical Exam Findings

A physical examination is essential for assessing the sternness of pain through observing the patient prior to the beginning of the examination (Brook et al, 2009). Some of the factors which can be examined prior to the physical examination include the following: if the patient is under a lot of pain, if the patient socializes easily with friends and family and, if the patient is able to ambulate without any form of discomfort (Palmer, & Palmer, 2014). Physical examination requires a whole abdominal examination to be undertaken, with specific attention given to border the inflammation of the bladder enlargement (Pachl, De & Jawaheer, 2014). The inguinal region should then be observed in order to look for any forms of hernias or otherwise any form of swelling.

Differential diagnoses and rationale      

There are different differential diagnoses of hydrocele depending on the type or area affected (Brook et al, 2009). In testicular cancer, solid hard masses which are not trans-illuminated are evident. Nonetheless, tumours may be surrounded by hydroceles which might be reactive, hence making them transilluminated. In epididymitis, the patient experiences pain clinically while the scrotum becomes tender and the changes in the local inflammatory can be noticed (Pachl, De & Jawaheer, 2014).  

Management Plan  

The diagnosis is tested through looking for tenderness around the enlarged scrotum (Brook et al, 2009). This is usually done through applying pressure on both the abdomen and the scrotum hence looking for inguinal hernia. Urine and blood tests should also be conducted in order to determine if the there is an infection like epididymitis. Ultra sound may also be necessary for treating hernia, or even other causative agents of scrotal swelling (Pachl, De & Jawaheer, 2014).    

Hydrocele in adolescents may be treated through a surgery, whereby the surgery can be performed through or on an outpatient basis during regional and general anaesthesia (Brook et al, 2009).  An incision is basically made in either the lower abdomen or through the scrotum in order to remove the hydrocele (Pachl, De & Jawaheer, 2014). After the surgery, a tube is necessary for draining the fluid, thus the patient is required to dress in bulk. The patient might need both ice packs and scrotal support strap to reduce the pain.

References

Pachl, M., De, L. H. M. N., & In Jawaheer, G. (2014). Key clinical topics in paediatric surgery.

Brook, C. G. D., Clayton, P. E., Brown, R. S., & Wiley InterScience (Online service). (2009). Brook's clinical pediatric endocrinology. Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell.

In Palmer, L. S., & In Palmer, J. S. (2014). Pediatric and adolescent urologic imaging.

An Overview of Kuhn's Structure of a Scientific Revolution

Abstract

The purpose of the paper was to present a detailed analysis of Kuhn's Thomas book Structure of a Scientific Revolution. This was achieved through following an analysis of Kuhn’s concepts in regard to normal science, paradigm priority, scientific theory emergency, and crisis as well as scientific revolutions. The paper began by outlining the core concepts that are presented by Kuhn and it was established that Kuhn’s structural science backbone is based on a paradigm notion as the accepted model.

Introduction

The book Structure of a Scientific Revolution by Khun Thomas contains a postscript and thirteen different chapters that were created after seven edition’s years. To begin with, the book investigated historical contribution to science existence in distinctive periods. Secondly, the book considered the nature, route and the puzzle solving normal science role (Devlin, & Bokulich, 2015). Thirdly, the book accounts for some rationales on why paradigms are measured as highlighted models while science is treated in brief. Fourth, the book accounts for anomalies as the fresh issue that would be resolved with algorithms that are known and the reactions of attendance to the discoveries of such scenarios as well described.  The fifth part of the book handles the possible scientist’s responses in regard to the outcomes of attendance and crisis of science (Devlin, & Bokulich, 2015). This results in the investigation of fresh scientific theories which are identified through scientific discoveries which are an additional part of this book. In the concluding section of the book, it attempted to explicate several thoughts like resolution, necessity, nature, inconspicuousness, progress as well as how the world perception is altered by the revolution of science (Devlin, & Bokulich, 2015).

Anomaly and the Emergence of Scientific Discovery

Based on Khun’s purport discovery ends with anomaly awareness. This then becomes a continuity with an increased or a lessened anomaly exploration and only closes where the theory of paradigm has been engaged in modification so that the anomalies matches with the set anticipations. However, discovery as a fresh phenomenon sort is a necessarily complicated event as it involves the recognition of what a thing is and its presence (Kuhn, 1996). As to Khun, discoveries are bound to be primary sections of science that are normal or the transformation point for a number of scientists towards science revolution. In this context, Khun recommends that the particular discoveries that are predicted in advance by a theory are a portion of science that is normal and thus they fail to generate a fresh form of facts. In this section, the author attempts to offer an explanation of anomalies guidelines utilized in scientist discoveries (Kuhn, 1996).

Crisis and the Emergence of Scientific Theory

According to Kuhn, (1996), despite the fact that anomalies awareness consumes long period in a creation of crisis in the nature of researching normal science it usually depends on some outside located forces like the current paradigm’s nature, scientific community’s nature, issue’s nature and so on. Further, it was established that versions exploration of certain theories is a normal crisis symptom. Khun made the assertion that the rise of a fresh theory is normally headed by pronounced insecurity period. Such forms of insecurities are usually created by the continuous failure in regard to normal science puzzles that should rise as they should. The failure of current rules becomes an introduction to the general search for the fresh ones. Fresh theories rise only post the highlighted failure in the normal issue solving the crisis and this, therefore, seems as a direct crisis response (Kuhn, 1996). In this section, Khun makes an attempt on trying to expose generally the sensation of a crisis in normal sciences and the leading of new scientific emergence theories. The author did not indicate crisis basic causes in the intellectual living. Several factors should have been identified in regard to scientific enterprise crisis. This did not additionally offer detailed processes the paradigm rivals and an advice should have been formulated in the rivalry paradigm.

Priority of Paradigms

Khun in this section attempted to voice out several thoughts on why the prioritization of paradigm exists to the procedures and rules in normal science. Khun asserted that paradigm is more simply developed as compared to normal science procedures and rules.  In support of this thought, Khun made the indication that rules body search that is competent to making constituting to the provided normal research that becomes continuous and an in-depth source of scientist’s frustrations (Kuhn & Hacking, 2012). Further, Khun stated that normal science can be established in portions through paradigms direct inspection a procedure that is usually assisted by the ones that do not depend upon the creation of assumptions and rules. Apparently, paradigm existence does not necessitate the need that there is the existence of any given rules. More Khun attests that paradigms can be more binding and comprehensive that any given research rules that would be unambiguously preoccupied from all of them. Thus the prioritization of Paradigm based on Khun is based on the fact that they offer a form of directions during research when rules are not in existence (Kuhn & Hacking, 2012).

Normal Science as Puzzle Solving

Khun revealed that the research of normal science issues is normally expected prior to the collection of data, interpretation and the general analysis. In accordance, issues that fit a given puzzle are usually chosen on the basis of whether they hold solutions (Kuhn & Hacking, 2012). To add, normal science holds a number of commitment like theoretical, conceptual, methodological and instrumental instructions that are sourced from the relative paradigms (Kuhn, 1996). Similarly, the puzzles are expected to be aligned with limiting instructions both in the context of acceptable solutions nature and the strategies through which obtaining is done. As indicated by Khun normal science offers satisfaction to all the required criteria in fulfilling the solving context of the puzzle.  This is the main rationale to why the Khun accounted normal science as a solving activity for the existing puzzles (Kuhn & Hacking, 2012).

References

Devlin, W. J., & Bokulich, A. (2015). Kuhn's Structure of scientific revolutions--50 years on. Springer.

Kuhn, T. S. (1996). The structure of scientific revolutions. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press.

Kuhn, T. S., & Hacking, I. (2012). The structure of scientific revolutions. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press.

Antimicrobial Stewardship Program

What is the role of antimicrobial stewardship program in curbing misuse and overuse of antimicrobials and reducing multidrug resistance?

Theoretical framework

This study involves a systematic review, where a critical evaluation and assessment is done on research studies that addresses the role of antimicrobial Stewardship program in curbing the overuse and misuse of antimicrobials. This systematic review will involve a comprehensive coverage of various studies that explores the identified question. This challenge of overuse and misuse of antimicrobials is among the biggest problems facing the public health sector across the globe. The discovery of effective antimicrobial agents has been among the greatest contributions to public health over the years since their introduction had dramatic and immediate impact on infectious diseases outcomes.  Sadly, the emergence of pathogens that are resistant to the agents has  posed a big threat to  such advances , so that resistance has become a major health threat affecting clinical outcomes of patients and even cost of healthcare (File, Srinivasan, & Bartlett,  2014) . Even though guidelines for the appropriate use of these antimicrobial agents were developed, failure to abide by them has been a major contributing factor.

 Therefore, finding a solution on how to abide by these principles is very urgent considering that a high percentage of these agents especially antibiotic in outpatient and inpatient setting are prescribed incorrectly or unnecessarily. The significance of health impact of this resistance and limited introduction of alternative antimicrobials has raised the need for a stewardship program that will prevent and reduce misuse and overuse. Unlike other kinds of medications, the potential for resistant organisms spreading indicates that antibiotics misuse can have adverse effects on patients’ health, those who have not even been exposed to them (File, Srinivasan, & Bartlett, 2014).   There is increasing evidence that supports programs based in hospitals and which aim at improving the use of antibiotics and other antimicrobials.   The push for antimicrobial stewardship program has been necessitated by the growing level of the crisis that has been declared a threat to national security.  The need for this programs and their effectiveness in promoting the appropriate use of the antimicrobial agents can be seen in the way they have assisted clinicians in the optimization of dosing in different patients (IGI Global, & In Information Resources Management Association, 2017).

 The adoptions of this program are of importance to the clinicians and the patients, and their engagement is aimed at teaching how the agents prescribe or how to use among the doctors and patients respectively. The role of the program is not only creating awareness among the patients and clinicians but also includes reducing the cases of resistance against the antimicrobials. The buck falls on the leadership of such programs since they are tasked with ensuring the consumption of these agents follow the established guidelines so that the desired patient outcomes are achieved. The program requires the leadership to involve a multidisciplinary team that cuts across the whole healthcare spectrum including the patients and the patients care givers both inside and outside the healthcare facilities. The use of antimicrobial agents involves all these parties, and the stewardship program has to bring them onboard so that they can accomplish their intended role (IGI Global,& In Information Resources Management Association, 2017). Together, the parties will develop interventions that are implemented in the program and hence the intended impact will be achieved at the healthcare facilities or at home where outpatient individuals could be receiving these drugs.

References

IGI Global,, & In Information Resources Management Association,. (2017). Public health and welfare: Concepts, methodologies, tools, and applications. 173-175

 File, T. M., Srinivasan, A., & Bartlett, J. G. (2014). Antimicrobial stewardship: importance for patient and public health. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 59(suppl 3), S93-S96.

Assignment 2: Gene Technology

Genetically Modified Crop plants

Genetic modification of plants as well as of animals has grown to be a common practice in the contemporary society. Individuals have been engaging in the changing of crop plants genomes for quick and increased production. Genetic production rule is to change the organism’s genetic materials generally the genome of the plants or animals (Halford, 2012). Crops that are modified genetically are utilized in agriculture in that their DNA is customized with the utilization of engineering genetic techniques. In most instances the objective is usually to create fresh traits to the plants which are not common in a natural development (Halford, 2012). GMO can thus be described as the laboratory production procedures where certain genes are obtained from a given organism are installed artificially into the Genes of organisms that are not related. The genes that are installed in the organisms might have been acquired from bacteria’s, animals or different viruses.

GMO of crop plants is thus a procedure through which the organism’s genetic content is altered so that DNA of a different plan can be utilized in giving more dominant characteristics.  The modern agricultural practice is mainly regarded as DNA technology that allows the mixing of DNA portions without any consideration of the sources except the dominating features (Halford, 2012). The primary objective of the practice is to copy the existing protein in some plants genes, determining the functions and the capability of certain genes, the investigation of expression of genes patters as well as the creation dominant plants. The primary application of GMO is the creation of pants crops that are customized in a more beneficial structure for the consumers as well as the manufacturers. Crops plants genetic modification usually occurs to offer the crops with bacterial genes that holds increased pest’s resistance. Practically this is aimed at lowering the amount of chemicals that a farmer utilizes in fighting against the attack by pests and illnesses (Kempken, 2010). Through the modification the farming costs are lowered generally while creating high yields for the consumption by the public and maximum earning for the producers.

Crops plants are generally modified so that they can attain the desired features such as diseases and pest resistance. This is not just a cost effective strategy but it additionally increases the ability of resisting draught since yields can be acquired within shorter periods and have the capability to resist the occurrence of draught (Kempken, 2010). The other objective of crops modification is the creation of herbicides resisting crops because a number of crops have the high capability of tolerating certain herbicides. This therefore allows farmers to utilize simplified strategies that does not necessitate tilling which is known to be facilitating soil erosion thus lowering carbon emissions. In general crops plants modification s more targeted at increasing the survival rate of the crops. Genetic modification of either crops or animal has caused controversial arguments globally. However some states have highly embraced the practice as the primary sources of food production and as the mode of developing the economy. Tomato was the initial crop to be genetically modified and commercialized GM crop which was accounted for safe consumption post to its testing by FDA in 1992 (Kempken, 2010). With time more and more crops are being modified such as cereals, fruits as well as vegetables. A significant number of persons generally agrees that the altering of nature is not right while others maintains that the embedment of animal’s genes in plants is immoral.  This views have led to the implementation of policies which requires labeling of the foods so that the consumer can make informed options. GMO has been accounted to be one of the leading carbon gas producers globally because most of the modified crops are grown in green houses. Through the activities the production has contributed to earth warming which in most cases affects water sources and the natural surroundings (Kempken, 2010).

However most individuals argues that GM is essential as it leads to the avoidance of draught and by creating illnesses resisting crops. Due to the climatic changes that have been influenced by individuals activities in the contemporary society such as the advancement of motors which mainly contributes in gases releases GM of crops helps in sustaining stable food supply (Stewart, 2004). Unlike the modern farming GM ensures that food is provided at all the periods to the consumers through shorter period’s productions as well as increased volume. In this context farmers are able to acquire maximum gains while the consumers generally benefit from consistent supply. These are mainly the primary rationales behind the practice which places the consumers as the priority. It is highly argued that the modified crops are unhealthy for consumption mainly because they are developed with the utilization of high content chemicals. However, this s not true since the crops are produced with the combination of genes from other dominating and unrelated crops which thus implies that no amount of chemical is utilized in the procedures. In addition the crops are normally tested prior to being commercialized and consumers are expected to choice which foods they should settle for. More than the previous decades the development has led increased crops production which would not have been achieved without such advancements (Russell, Herz, & McMillan, 2015).

In my opinion I believe that GM of plants crops is a positive practice rather than a negative one as perceived by most. The practice of testing and acquiring animals as well as plants DNA information is good as it helps in the creation of illnesses resistance crops (Tzotzos, Hull, & Head, 2009). This is a form of discovery for some of the persisting illnesses that affects crops. In addition this leads to reduced costs of the general production since the farmers are not generally required to utilize more chemicals in the fighting of pesticides.in my belief the practice of customizing and artificially installing dominants characteristics in crops is not an immoral practice it is a beneficial one that is not just only aimed at benefiting the producers in terms of income but also it benefits the public through ensuring that there is consistent food supply (Tzotzos, Hull, & Head, 2009). The practice so a form of technological advancement that is aimed solving some of the climatic issues that have led to less agricultural production. In addition genetic modification has presented more solutions as compared to issues and it additionally provides consumers with informed choices. Through the modification several development have been acquired which has resulted in the creation of more dominating and illnesses resisting crops.

References

Halford, N. G., & World Scientific (Firm). (2012). genetically modified crops. London: Imperial College Press.

Kempken, F. (2010). Genetic modification of plants: Agriculture, horticulture and forestry. Berlin: Springer.

Russell, P. J., Herz, P. E., & McMillan, B. (2015). Biology: The dynamic science. Cengage Learning.

Stewart, C. N. (2004). Genetically modified planet: Environmental impacts of genetically engineered plants. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Tzotzos, G. T., Hull, R., & Head, G. P. (2009). Genetically modified plants: Assessing safety and managing risk. Amsterdam: Elsevier/Academic Press.

Epigenetic Marks

I believe that epigenetic marks can be inherited. This is the general though that inheritance can only occur through the DNA coding that is passed from the parents to their offspring’s. This therefore implies that the experiences of a parent that occurs in the context of tags that are epigenetic can be transferred to other generations (Tost, 2008). Based on the studies that have been conducted in the recent years there is less doubt that the general inheritance of epigenetic marks is an actual occurrence. A fresh embryo’s epigenome is not fully erased during the rebuilding process (Moore, 2015).  Some pairs of epigenetic marks remains intact in form of genetic information and passed from a generation to the next a procedure that is regarded as epigenetic inheritance.

Inheritance that occurs epigenetically seems to be a finding that is rather unconventional based on the fact that it works against the idea that genetic information is only transferred using DNA coding. However, Epigenetic inheritance is essential as it explains some existing genetic inheritance patterns that have been a genetic puzzle for an extensive period (Moore, 2015). So that cells reproduction can occur in the production of complex organisms the procedure requires the erasing of epigenome through the procedure that is regarded as reprogramming this helps in the development of cells with stabilized genetic expressions (Craig, 2011). In short genetics tags are to be erased so that healthier embryos can be created however during the procedure for a minority of the genes epigenetic marks passes the process and are transferred in an unchanged format from to the generated offspring’s (Craig, 2011).

References

Tost, J. (2008). Epigenetics. Norfolk, UK: Caister Academic Press.

Moore, D. S. (2015). The developing genome: An introduction to behavioral epigenetics.

Craig, J. M. (2011). Epigenetics: A reference manual. Norfolk: Caister Acad. Press.

Protein Identification and Comparison

He identification of  exoression patterns for proteins and proteins themsevles in organsm under specific physiological conditions has gained a lot of importance for the study of various process in a cell (Rabilloud,157).This  experiement aims at identification and comparison of protien concentration in the sample, through extrating protein and running the samples through a cleanup process, carryin oout an electrophoresis to separate the protein strains.  The soruce of the protin strain involve various species of fish with different similarities of protein similarities . This is indicated in the cladogram where various fish have protein bands , so that majority species have shared common protien with their ancestors  , while other have limited shared characteristics.

Does molecular evidence support or disprove the theory of evolution or does it support or disprove the predictions?

The cladogram indicates that fish shared characteristics or common protein bands have a common ancestor. The more similar characteristics are shared by the fish the more likely that they have a common ancestor in recent times. With evidence showing that more fish have similar traits and recent common ancestors; this can support the evolution theory.

What conclusion can be made from the proteins about evolution?

The banding patterns as shown by the gel have revelation of information about the composition of various muscles from the samples of the fish. Proteins are normally synthesized in accordance to the genes of a DNA.  Proteins profiles that are similar show that DNA in which they are coded has to be the same.

How are organisms classified on the basis of evolution?

The difference in protein patterns and the different branches shoes that these fish species separated at different times of evolution.

Works cited

Rabilloud, Thierry, ed. Proteome research: two-dimensional gel electrophoresis and identification methods. Springer Science & Business Media.2000. 157-158

Energy Sources and Energy for Life

The three types of energies sources that are utilized by cells include sunlight, glucose, and cellular nutrients. Cellular nutrients normally include fats as well as sugars. So that the cells can be energized, the molecules are required to pass across the membrane that operates as barriers despite the fact that it is not impassable (Karp, 2010). The different proteins that cross the membrane allow different molecules to the cells but they necessitate some energy utilization in accomplishing tasks. On the other hand sunlight is the main source of energy for almost all the cells because of photosynthetic, algae, prokaryotes as well as plant cells which harness the sunlight energy and utilize it in creating complex organic molecules that are relied by plants in sustaining metabolism, reproduction, and growth (Karp, 2010). Sugar molecules provide ATP and the molecular energy is utilized in functions such are energy production.

Passive and active transport illustrates the types of transportation that are involved in the cells.  Active transport utilizes nutrients energy which necessitates the creation of cell membrane gradient (Karp, 2010).  On the other hand, passive transport is the molecules movement across the membrane which mainly utilizes energy that is acquired from sunlight that is utilized in ATPs production through osmosis, diffusion and facilitated diffusion (Karp, 2010).

Most individuals lose weight on planning diets that restricts intakes of calories and what the take in the short run.  However, low carbohydrates intake may lead to short run weight reduction as compared to diets with low fats (McArdle, Katch & Katch, 2006). Carbohydrates diets result in the reduction of body energy. On the other hand, Atkins is effective in quick shedding fats shed off and reduces the number of health risks such as diabetes but the lack of a balance may lead to body weakness due to the presence of low fats in the body (McArdle, Katch & Katch, 2006).

The enzyme is a substance that is normally produced by the living organisms which serves as a catalyst in creating precise biochemical reactions (McArdle, Katch & Katch, 2006). Lipase is one of the enzymes that is involved in the breaking down of diets fats into small sized molecules that are called glycerol and fatty acids. A metabolic pathway is essential in the regulation of cells, in facilitating reactions and energy production (McArdle, Katch & Katch, 2006).

References

Karp, G. (2010). Cell and molecular biology: Concepts and experiments. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley.

McArdle, W. D., Katch, F. I., & Katch, V. L. (2006). Essentials of exercise physiology: Student resource CD-ROM. Philadelphia, Pa: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Species and Scientific Correction

Theories are created to help scientists in explaining patterns of some given data, developing new questions that can be asked in the collection of new data.  The understanding of science in regard to the universe – planets movement and people’s behavior is based on the ability for good data collection.  People who are involved in collection and analysis of good data are held highly by scientists, while these scientists also regard highly others who were before them. Science is self-correcting in that experiments are   repeated by many scientists making it difficult for fictitious results to go on for a long time without being found out.  If scientists are interested in certain results, they repeat the experiments with data which has been availed and they may make some changes for testing other explanations for the finding (Markman, 2010).

It is not always true that science is self-correcting or that disproven theories can be corrected due to various reasons. To begin with, some findings that may correct previous results are not given as much interest or consideration as the original research. Secondly, there is a possibility that potential correction will be contested especially when they are considered to be negative. In addition, there is more frenzied competition for publishing space in prestigious journals so that new discoveries are given more attention while publishing corrective research is given less attention.  Therefore, self-correction is unintentionally undermined by human and institutional factors.

 Of the researchers are dishonest, they can be caught when their scientific experiments are repeated by other researchers.  In the lab scientist follow the specified methods instead of making their own adjustments. Following the scientific methods provides reliable results since the methods are evidence-based while any modification would results to unproven scientific conclusions (Comstock, 2013). 

Reference

Markman, A., (2010).Why science is self-correcting. Retrieved from: https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/ulterior-motives/201008/why-science-is-self-correcting

Comstock, G. (2013). Research ethics: a philosophical guide to the responsible conduct of research. Cambridge University Press.44

Topic 1

Systems  coordination  of the human body, performs  cooperatively  in  the processing of data that  that is  obtained  from Stimuli  in order to generate  respective  responses.  Human body  systems  refers  to the  collective functional  unit  that is created  by  different  organs  where  they  work  in the  comprehensive  coordination  with  each other (Scott & Fong, 2017).  Organs  may  not  normally  work  on sole  basis  since  there  are several  needs  of each  organ  that is required  to be fulfilled  and one  organ cannot  fully  meet the  needs.  This implies  that  all the  human body’s organs  are necessitated  to  perform their responsibilities  in ways that  the  organs systems  functioning is fully  accomplished.  Human body  systems  coordination  occurs amid  12 major systems which includes endocrine,  digestive, respiratory,  skeletal, nervous, circulatory, immune, muscular, lymphatic, urinary , cardio vascular, reproductive  and  integumentary  system (Scott & Fong, 2017).

Coordination  is achieved  where  organs in  different  systems within the  body  are involved  in an  interaction  thus offering  complementation  to the functions of one another. The  coordination  of  different  systems organs  occurs  in  order  to create  a steady  surrounding within  the whole body (Scott & Fong, 2017).  For instance, the endocrine and the nervous system interact within the body in the integration of all activities.  For instance in a stressful situation the  heart  rate rises  due to  the  stimulation of Sympathetic, the pupil tends  to dilate, the  hair Pilli muscle  erects,  perspiration  stimulates thus increasing  the  air passage in the facilitation  of  breathing. In this scenario the body organs are in coordination so that body stress can be handled adequately (Scott & Fong, 2017).

Topic 2

 An improved understanding of the working of the human brain would result in improved treatment of brain injuries, psychiatric disorders, neurologic, development, function, aging and technological development.  Every  development and  particularly  those that are  aimed at drawing  innovative or  improved  solutions  requires  adequate  understanding of the  subject  and the issue  itself.  The medical field  is one that is characterized with  complex issues  due to the complexity  of body organs  functioning  whose  k knowledge  is  not well  grounded.  Creativity  can only be attained  with  increased  knowledge on how the  brain  functions and the necessary  conditions  for  a normal  functions  which  would help in  addressing issues that are related  to psychiatric  disorders.  Understanding the brain’s  functioning  has  the capability of  changing and improving numerous  human health  functions  since most of the  coordination  and  functioning is  coordinated by the brain (NIH, 2013).

The brain initiative should be pursued. Neurological  disorders  and particularly  Alzheimer’s  is one of the  brain disorder  that  may highly   acquire  maximum benefits  from increased  knowledge  regarding  the brain’s functioning (Farooqui & Farooqui, 2017).  According  to the recent studies  that have been conducted  by  scientists from the global  setting it is clear that  there are  various  factors that influences  the progress and the  start of Alzheimer illness  which are  mainly linked  to genetic  disorder (Farooqui & Farooqui, 2017).  Understanding  the  brain  more  may  help in  creating  different treatments  that  can  help  in  treating the neurological disorders  which affects  thousands of  persons from the  global setting. The knowledge may help in creating reversing treatment strategies that would help the affected persons.  The brain initiative  can be  an effective an useful one  in broadening  brain’s knowledge  which  will help in drawing  more  medical  solutions to the rising  brain  disorders.

Topic 3

Enzymes  can best be categorized as  catalysts which  draws the implication that  they are normally  chemicals  that  offers assistance  in making the reaction of chemicals  to  occur speedily and easily (Polaina & MacCabe, 2007). In general, enzymes  are utilized  in  cleaning  products  so that  effectiveness  can be  accomplished in  handling the complex dirt  forms that are struggled  with by  normal cleaning products. Lipases are one of the major enzymes that are used in cleaning products. Lipases are a constitutional of biocatalysts that are applied in bio technology. Lipases are normally added to household and industrial laundry detergents. The  objective  of  utilizing  lipases  in cleaning products  is so that  fatty  residues  as well  as  clogged  cleaning  drains  can be removed . lipases  is  characterized  with  high  power  of cleaning  and such other  enzymes  like  amylases, celluloses, proteases and lipases  are  normally  added to the cleaning products so that  the  efficiency  required  in cleaning  can be improved.  Lipases are utilized in cleaning products so that they can break down any presence of grease and fats (Polaina & MacCabe, 2007).

One  enzyme’s  molecule  has the  ability of acting  similar to several  substrate molecules  in  breaking  the existing  molecular  bonds. Lipases substrate is referred to as Triglyceride which is a major building unit of lipids.  The  primary  product  of the enzyme are  the  normal subunits  of  Triglycide  which  included  fatty  acids  as well as  glycerol.  Lipase works by breaking down lipids which is referred to as catabolisation (Polaina & MacCabe, 2007).  Since  lipids are composed  of  glycerol  that  is normally attached  to the three  major  fatty chains the substrate  directly  becomes  lipids  while the  general products  are both  fatty acids  and glycerol.  As  an enzyme  lipase  hydrolyzes  lipids as the substrate thus  breaking  the  triglycerides  bonds  in order to create  glycerol and fatty  acids (Polaina & MacCabe, 2007). 

Figure 1: Enzymes and the Respective Substrate

Figure 2: Use of Lipase Enzyme in Cleaning

Figure 3: Lipase Application in Different Solvent Systems

References

Farooqui, T., & Farooqui, A. A. (2017). Neuroprotective effects of phytochemicals in neurological disorders.

NIH. (2013). The Brain Initiative.  Pdf.

Polaina, J., & MacCabe, A. P. (2007). Industrial enzymes: Structure, function, and applications. Dordrecht: Springer.

Scott, A. S., & Fong, E. (2017). Body structures and functions. Cengage Learning.

Biology

Week 1

An example to illustrate how I normally utilize scientific method in my daily life is while a fix a cup of coffee every day.  This is something that  I  normally  do each and every  day since I  enjoy  coffee  a lot.

Making Observation

I  get home and  head to the  kitchen for coffee as usual from the coffee  maker  machine, set  an empty coffee  cup under  the machine’s nozzle pressing  the button  for a dispense  of  coffee.  I can see the coffee in front of me.  Immediately I begin to  ask myself  whether  the  coffee might  be too hot  to  drink at that  moment.

Hypothesis

From all my prior experiences with coffee, it is more likely that the coffee is hot based on what I am used to.  Because  I  had  just  poured the coffee  and  had no time  to sit  out I assume  that it is too  hot  to drink.  My hypothesis in the case is that the coffee is too hot to be drunk.

Experiment

I divide the coffee into two halves.  I move  my  hand in a gradual  manner  to the  initial  cap  to  obtain the  idea of its  warmth.  It is my belief that  if the  coffee is too  hot  it should  make the  cup  warm then  if the cup is not that  warm this means  that  it is ready  to be drunk.

Data Analysis

Upon  conducting my experiment  and allowing the other  half  to  cool I  realized  that the  cup  is not  as  warm as usual and therefore the  coffee is not  too hot  as  expected.  The coffee was therefore; ready to drink while the one that cooled was not favorable.

Conclusion

The coffee was not too hot to drink.  My hypothesis in the case was wrong.

Dependent Variable

My response to the warm and cooled coffee

Independent Variable

Dividing the coffee to cool

Control Variable

The amount of time utilized to wait for the coffee to cool

Response

The example on the driver’s schedule being influenced by weather had a very specific hypothesis.  However, the conclusion did not support the hypothesis directly.  Independent, control as well as dependent variables should also have been incorporated for accuracy and reliability.  In addition  weather is  more of a seasonal issue  rather  than a daily  one  which makes  it  hard  to  test  the  experiment  in the long term. The experiment  can be  developed  by the utilization  of a more  direct  example  that can be tested every day  without  the  challenges  of seasonality.

Week 2

Hamburger parties are my  favorite  they are  made  with  grounded  beef  and  comes in different  kinds and  sizes.  They hold much protein as well as fat that is contained in the red meat. Carbohydrates are not excluded as it is contained in the baked bread but it is usually in low content.  It is therefore made up of calories, minerals, organic, regular, vitamins, proteins as well as fat.

Hypothesis

Hamburger lacks a nutritional balance as it offers more proteins as compared to vitamins and carbohydrates.

Based on research hamburger contains proteins, carbohydrates, calories and fats which are 6, 13, 11 and 14 percent respectively (Odom, 2015).  The diet lacks vitamins as an essential molecule that is highly necessitated in living.  The research supported  by hypothesis  even though not directly by stating that  hamburger  does not  provide  a balanced  diet  as some  molecules  are high  than others.  Despite the fact that proteins are required in the creation and refurbish of tissues a balance of lipids, carbohydrates and proteins is a necessity (Odom, 2015).

Response

From the post on the  Dog’s  taste the  discussion lacked  a detailed research on  the  molecular  composition  of the  food  and its benefits.  The hypothesis was however, well developed in support of the experiment.  The  example and the experiment should be  equipped and developed  more by ensuring that  the content of the foods’ nutrition is  offered   with  that company  of a thorough  research  to support  the  thesis.

Week 3

Lynn Margulis made the proposition that the comparisons amid organelles and prokaryotes in combination with their fossil record appearance can best be detailed by endo-symbiosis theory (Fossil, n.d). The proposition was aimed at explaining the eukaryotic cells evolution to demonstrate that Organelles were fully different from the bacteria types that separated in the evolution (Fossil, n.d). Mitochondria are amongst the numerous organelles kinds that are established in all eukaryotes cells. Generally they are accounted to have developed from Proteobacteria via the Endo-symbiosis procedure (Fossil, n.d). On the  other hand  Chloroplasts  are among the  distinct  organelles  kinds  in the cells plant which  developed  from  cyanobacteria via endo-symbiosis (Fossil, n.d).

Response

The most interesting post that I choose to respond to is that of diapers chemical composition. The absorption  composition  is assisted  by  absorbent  polymer  which holds the  incredible  capability  of absorbing  inside  all the designed  layers this is  developed  from  petroleum and contains  strong chemical that  are  of assistance  in  its  accomplishments.

            References

ESS. (n.d). ESS Science in Everyday Life. Retrieved from https://europeanspallationsource.se/ess-science-everyday-life

Fossil , museum. (n.d). Endo-Symbiosis Theory Introduction. Retrieved from http://www.fossilmuseum.net/Evolution/Endosymbiosis.htm

Odom, E. (2015). Nutritional Value of Hamburger Patty. Retrieved from http://www.livestrong.com/article/42136-nutritional-value-hamburger-patty/

Total protein determination

Introduction

 The determination of cell proteins through protein assays depends on technique and sensitivity of method, units’ definition, interfering compounds and removing substances interfering with the process before samples of the assay and correlating information from the techniques used.

Gel electrophoresis is used to separate and analyze molecules of protein and protein’s fragments on the basis of charge and seize. Bovine Serum Albumin is normally used in identifying the protein contained in a given fractions or cells and more so their concentration in a sample.  BSA is normally used as standard for protein concentration. As a standard it is used in the determination of quantities of various proteins, through a comparison of unknown protein quantity to some known amounts (In Neves & In Reis, 2016). Bradford Protein essay is used in measuring the protein concentration in a given serum or solution. It is quite fast, fairly accurate and allows samples that fall out of range to be retested within shortest time possible (In Neves & In Reis, 2016). The concentration of protein is determined through a comparison with a series of protein standards which can show linear absorbance profile in the assay. The Lowry assay is used to determine protein total level in a given solution and is normally exhibited by a change of sample solution color proportionately to protein concentration.

In the results for this experiment, there was concentration of BSA proteins is showed to be increasing as   from 0.048 up to 0.575 as the level of the reagent increases. This means that absorbance of the BSA was increasing as the protein concentration levels were rising. The limitations or errors arising from the essay include matrix interference by materials that are highly concentrated or high concentration of proteins.

Reference

In Neves, N. M., & In Reis, R. L. (2016). Biomaterials from nature for advanced devices and therapies.540

TITLE:

The following paper elaborably indicates our experiement in testing the process of fermentation. Independeant Variable: water, yeast and corn syrup.

INTRODUCTION:

The experiment will seek to prove the hypothesis which states that, an increase in temperature increases the process of fermenataion. This is because enzymes that facilitate fermantention also break down at increased temperatures (Merritt 1965). Our experiment involved studing the effects of temperature on fermentation and to find out at what temperature would enzymes hydrolyze and stop the process of fermentation.

 According to Olaniran and Pillay, temperature changes ahs a deep effects on living organisms as enzyme catalyzed reactions are very sentive towards small variations in temperature (Olaniran & Pillay 2011). Abdel-Banat et al stated that, a 5 degrees raise in the temperature to a great extent affects the production of ethanol through fermentation process (Abdel-Banat et al 2010).

To test this, our team observed the amount of Co2, (the biproduct produced from the porcess of fermiatazion), over a preroid of thirty minutes. To ensure accuracy, our team tested the same amount utilizing the following: 6ml of corn syrup, 6ml of yeast suspension, and 2 ml of water. The controlled variable: change in temperature. The dependant variable involved the amount of Co2 produced from various temperatures over the time of thirty minutes.

Hypothesis: fermentation increases with increase in temperature. It is predicted that at at high levels of temperature, the fermentation process will be accelerated and thus more CO₂ will be produced.

MATERIALS AND METHODS:

First, we got four tubes, a grease pencil, 6ml of yeast, and 6ml of corn syrup and 2ml of water. We labeled the test tubes “1, 2, 3 and 4” with the grease pencil. After we added 6 ml of corn syrup, yeast and 2 ml of water in all tubes, we mixed them. Tube 1 was placed on ice at 2 degrees Celsius, tube 2 was left at room temperature at 21 degrees Celsius, tube 3 was place inside the incubator at 37 degrees Celsius, and tube 4 was place in an incubator at 50 degrees Celsius. We collected data using a chart with 5 minutes increments (stating 0 minutes to 30 minutes) and record the amount of CO₂ (air bubbles on top) in millimeters (mm).  Our dependent variable was the amount of CO₂ produced at the different temperatures. The experiment was developed based on the manual lab experiment: 0 minutes to 5 minutes no fermentation results were produced in any of the tubes. At ten minutes tubes 4 had an increment of 0.8ml. Which means fermentation was happening andCO₂ was producing.  At fifteen minutes tube 3 had 0.2 ml and tube 4 pass from 0.8 ml to 3.3 ml. At twenty minutes tube 1 which was place in ice, and tube 2 which was left at room temperature did not produce any fermentation, so any CO₂ was produce. On the other hand, tube 3 and 4 were producing a lot CO₂. Tube 3, twenty minutes passed and noticed a change from 1.6 ml of fermentation to 4.5 reaching the maximum fermentation level. While, tube 4 at twenty minutes went from 5 ml of fermentation to approximately 8-9 ml this means that fermentation and production of CO₂ happened faster at 41 degrees Celsius.

RESULTS:

The table below shows the change in rate of fermentation with change in temperatures.

From the above table, the rate of fermentation can be seen to increase as the temperatures increase. At low temperatures, no rate of fermentation was experienced. The temperatures were then increased to room temperature and still no fermentation occurred at these temperatures. When the temperatures further increase to 37 degrees Celsius, the process of fermentation begins, although not as fast as in 41 degrees Celsius. At 41 degrees Celsius, the process of fermentation begins more quickly.

DISCUSSION:

Fermentation occurs due to the respiration process of yeast. Carbohydrates are broken down into carbon dioxide and alcohol, which leads to fermentation. For this process of fermentation to occur well, then there is necessity for optimal temperatures.

In tube 1, 2 degrees Celsius temperatures were too low. With the temperatures being that low, the enzymes are inactive hence inhibiting the occurrence of fermentation.

However, from the results, there is no solid evidence as to whether the low temperatures slow down fermentation since the experiment was not conducted for a long duration of time.

In tube 2, there is room temperature and still no fermentation observed within the time of the experiment. The temperatures are still not favorable for yeast to respire. To conclude whether these temperatures slow down the process of fermentation, the experiment would have to be conducted over a longer period of time and make more observations.

In tube 3 at 37 degrees Celsius, fermentation begins after some time. The temperatures are now high enough to facilitate the respiration process. Enzymes can respire under these temperatures and therefore leading to fermentation. It is important to note that this is the normal temperature for most warm-blooded animals.

In tube 4, the temperatures were increased to 41 degrees Celsius. It is seen that the process of fermentation hastened and there were larger volumes that were fermented within the duration of the experiment. This shows optimality of conditions for enzymes to respire. At these temperatures, fermentation occurs more quickly, an indicator that these are temperatures around which fermentation best occurs. The process of fermentation did not stop or slow down within the duration of the experiment, indicating need for test under higher temperatures.

The experiment proved our hypothesis to be true since at low temperatures the fermentation process was at minimal but as temperatures increased, the process fastened and more CO₂ was produced. Hence we can deduce and support the hypothesis that the more the temperatures, the higher the rate of fermentation.

A similar experiment on yeast indicated that when yeast is inadequately warmed that is, exposed to low temperatures, it did act much as a leavening agent as the yeast cells will slowly burn the sugar hence slowing down the process of fermentation (Olaniran & pillay 2011).

The experiment lacked sufficient temperatures and duration of time to make solid conclusions at each specific temperature. In repeating this experiment, I would recommend that sufficient time should be allocated for the experiment. Also I would find more sources of varying temperatures so as to allow a solid deduction of results at each specific temperature. Although there is a notable trend, speculation has been used to draw conclusions rather than pure observation.

CONCLUSION:

            From the observations and discussion, it is evident that an increase in temperature up to a certain level will increase the rate at which fermentationoccurs. However, an experiment at higher temperatures is vital since enzymes are inactive at low temperatures and are denatured by very high temperatures. Since at 41 degrees Celsius, the process of fermentation was almost optimal, a further increase in temperatures is vital to conclude how far high an increase in temperature causes an increase in the rate of fermentation.

References

Merritt, N.R (1965). The influence of temperatures on some properties of yeast. Retrieved on Feb 12 from http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/j.2050-0416.1966.tb02977.x/pdf

Olaniran, A. O., Maharaj, Y. R., & Pillay, B. (2011). Effects of fermentation temperature on the composition of beer volatile compounds, organoleptic quality and spent yeast density.   Electronic journal of biotechnology, 14(2), 5-5.

Abdel-Banat, B. M., Hoshida, H., Ano, A., Nonklang, S., & Akada, R. (2010). High-temperature             fermentation: how can processes for ethanol production at high temperatures become        superior to the traditional process using mesophilic yeast?. Applied microbiology and biotechnology, 85(4), 861-867.