The Effects of Cyber Security on International Politics

Introduction

Cybersecurity is the protection of computers and networks from theft or damage from cyberattacks. It is capable of securing the government’s data against cyber threats. The more information technology advances, so do issues and threats to the governing bodies in cyberspace. Governments globally struggle with cybersecurity due to the increase of cyberattacks.

The issue of cybersecurity is global because it is concerned with technology, culture, and political changes. Cyber threats and attacks have become more costly, strategic, and political posing a challenge to international politics (Sutherland 2018). Information communication technology is the cause of the major challenges in global security. The highest government circles deal with the issue of cybersecurity as a major challenge in national security. Cooperation among states to reduce threats such as cyberattacks on offensive operations is important. Cyber threats could lead to economic and societal damages (Chernenko, Demidov & Lukyanov 2018). Cybersecurity politics are characterized by digital technologies which include the misuse and use of actors.

Strategies to govern the new technologies call for coordination by the heads of government, global industries, and experts intending to improve cybersecurity strategies to safeguard the essential services. Because cyber threats and risks keep evolving, a wide variety of oversight structures need to be developed to oversee them. Cyber risk is new and growing rapidly as well, therefore governance of cyber risk involves a unique set of competencies that are well coordinated (National Research Council 2013). A cybersecurity workforce that is capable and can do the job, better tools, and techniques that will ensure the job is efficiently done are essential.

Cybersecurity politics are well-defined by the national and international dialogue processes about the roles of the state, economic, and actors of the society and the means the actors use (Cavelty & Wenger 2020). The factors that impact the cybersecurity of states include technology, politics, and science. The technological dynamics interact with social and political dynamics and the possibilities and constraints affect the social-economic processes. The intellectual history of cybersecurity is determined by the three factors.

The state’s concern is the national security and the possibility of states or non-states to tamper with critical information (Buckland, Schreier, Winkler & Centre pour le contrôle démocratique des forces armées (Genève) 2010). The state is also concerned with infrastructure and the threat of telecommunication disruptions and the decisions to respond to threats. Digital technologies are important in state interactions raising new types of power and how it impacts the existing power in the system.

Conclusion

Cybersecurity on international politics is a global concern for the government because of the rapid growth of cyber threats and risks. The risks have made it a challenge because its impact can cause an impact on the economy. The government coordinates with other agencies and organizations that work around it to discuss the root cause and the remedies. Factors that affect cybersecurity of the states are technology, politics, and science. The state is concerned with national security and protection of critical information and telecommunication threats from cyberattacks.

References

Buckland, B. S., Schreier, F., Winkler, T. H., & Centre pour le contrôle démocratique des forces

armées (Genève). (2010). Democratic governance challenges of cyber security. DCAF.

Chernenko, E., Demidov, O., & Lukyanov, F. (2018). Increasing international cooperation in

cybersecurity and adapting cyber norms. Council on Foreign Relations.

Dunn Cavelty, M., & Wenger, A. (2020). Cyber security meets security politics: Complex

technology, fragmented politics, and networked science. Contemporary Security Policy, 41(1), 5-32.

Sutherland, E. (2018 ). Cybersecurity: governance of a new technology. In Proceedings of

the PSA18 Political Studies Association International Conference, Cardiff (pp. 26-28).

National Research Council. (2013). Professionalizing the nation's cybersecurity workforce?:

Criteria for decision-making. National Academies Press.

1. The strategic utility and management of nuclear weapons were tested in particular crises pitting atomic powers against one another. Explain the lessons we learned from the Cuban missile crisis, the 1998-1999 Pakistan-India Kashmir conflict, and the 2017 North Korean nuclear testing crisis on how nuclear powers use and manage atomic weapons.

            With the longest war in US history in progress, dangers of fear-mongering spread around the world, and North Korean atomic dangers in the features, it's reasonable to hear warnings of an approaching World War III. Presently, like never before, the investigation of US international strategy and security is fundamental. With that in mind, we glanced back at a particular crossroads ever—when the chance of World War III appeared to be impending—that has become an essential contextual investigation in US international strategy and security emergency the board for as long as 55 years: the Cuban Missile Crisis. That was the nearest we've come to World War III—an atomic World War III—and we wouldn't discuss it today if that had occurred; it is highly unlikely the world would have been the equivalent (Allison, 2012). That is the reason the Missile Crisis stays enormous.

            Garthoff stresses that if the US ended up in a comparable circumstance today, similar to the one entering North Korea, the result would almost certainly be unique about that of the Cuban Missile Crisis. On the off chance that the US heads followed the conventional exercises that Reese has been adulated for (Garthoff, 2011). His point wasn't winning, as the customary thought proposes. His position was keeping away from an atomic war. Despite the legends of the Missile Crisis, Reese exhibited a gigantic ability to be adaptable and compassionate, attempt to imagine the enemy's perspective, and attempt to see how he could enable the foe to escape the circumstance by hiding any hint of failure (Reese, 2019).

            For instance, Reese balanced the maritime bar limits to forestall strife when a Soviet boat approached the limit line (Reese, 2019). He additionally concurred covertly to expel the US rockets from Turkey to mollify the Soviets—a reality left well enough alone for a long time. The whole exercise is that we should be sympathetic. Other essential practices gained from the Cuban Missile Crisis about limiting danger and strife during an emergency remember the capacity to be adaptable and open for correspondence. The point ought to be to forestall distress, not oversee it. Since those 13 days in 1962, the United States has never positioned its vital powers again at DEFCON 2; the Soviet Union has disintegrated into what is presently Russia. And the Cuban Missile Crisis has discovered its way into the educational program of about each understudy who examines worldwide relations at the propelled level (Allison, 2012).

            It is confident that what is to be considered are the specific exercises that the Cuban Missile Crisis will become as predominant in other international strategy and security concentrates as they are at the School of International Service. Students are set up with a lot of interdisciplinary abilities that can help forestall and relieve security emergencies (Garthoff, 2011). For instance, one of the particular parts of the United States Foreign Policy and National Security (USFP) program is its spotlights on political history as an approach to assemble compassion. Some portion of the objective of understanding the manners in which nations have responded in the past to the United States and to be more self-intelligent to what the United States has done previously. Cuba Libre: A 500-Year Quest for Independence brings a profound jump into Cuba's conventions and long history—including the Cuban Missile Crisis—to comprehend its international strategies (Allison, 2012). Today, we live in such a globalized world; we need to figure out how to live with others. A rude comment by a president can set off gyrations in another nation (Garthoff, 2011). Accordingly, we mean that international strategy is about the world's life and demise circumstance seclusion isn't an alternative.

2. Read in annex 1 the prediction on Arctic security published in 2007 in a Canadian outlet. Knowing what we know about Arctic security threats, was this prediction correct? Are there some threats that are not presented, talked about in the analysis?

            There can be no uncertainty that the Arctic has developed as a significant concentration for both the circumpolar states and an expanding number of non-Arctic countries and non-state entertainers (Lukens, 2013). To have such a substantial amount of significant arrangement declarations from such vast quantities of substantial parts in so short a period shows up is irregular in foreign relations. There is no point of reference for such extreme enthusiasm for the Arctic. While every announcement was unique, some essential topics rose, remembering an accentuation for natural security, longing for global collaboration, and resolve to ensure national interests. These new needs have prompted the remilitarization of the Arctic.

            Two fundamental concerns followed by the expectation. To start with, while the environmental change was recognized as in a general sense changing the whole Arctic biological system, the locale was still viewed as being exceptionally naturally touchy. The more significant part of the arrangement explanations stressed the need to keep up ecological security and supportable turn of events. Since the more substantial portion of the Arctic had not recently been presented to far-reaching financial action, there was a distinct want to get it directly from the earliest starting point (Landriault & Minard, 2016). Both Canada and the United States clarified that the available advancement of the area inside their social control was a need. Canada expressed that one of the main impetuses for controlling the land and water of its Arctic domain was securing its condition (Lukens, 2013). This subject was likewise predominant in a significant part of the Russian documentation; Russia asserted the need to ensure its Arctic condition to legitimize broadening its authority over both the grounds and the waters of its Arctic locale.

            The second worry that follows from expanded worldwide movement in the Arctic is the requirement for developed policing and security nearness (Boslough, Ivey, Taylor, Zak & Backus, 2008). The inborn supposition that will be that as movement increments in the area, it will be essential to improve each state's capacity to screen who is showing up in its the Arctic and what they are doing there. It, at that point, gets vital to police the new exercises. The vast majority of the Arctic states building up the new approaches have clarified that they don't accept that they at present have satisfactory intends to police the territory (Lukens, 2013). Thus, a significant part of the real and proposed fabricating plans are legitimized as improving the states' capacity to fulfill these needs.

 A vital system to look at the potential for environmental change to influence security and struggle is to utilize either outright levels or inconstancy of precipitation as an intermediary for ecological change (Boslough, Ivey, Taylor, Zak & Backus, 2008). This methodology has discovered blended outcomes. Researchers found that large negative deviations in precipitation from the chronicled standard are related to a greater danger of typical clash. Regardless of whether gatherings resort to brutality despite the naturally incited difficulty, they will probably rely upon the accessibility of elective ways of dealing with stress (Lukens, 2013). In 2007, Landriault & Minard investigated the observational reason for a linkage between atmosphere changeability and strife. They found that both long haul climatic patterns, just as expanding between yearly inconstancies, typical prompt clash (Landriault & Minard, 2016). They utilize a methodology established on the acknowledgment that the natural outcomes of more noteworthy inconstancy are decreases in framework consistency and dependability, and increment in extraordinary occasions, such as typhoons (Landriault & Minard, 2016). In any case, Landriault & Minard also attest that both long term atmosphere patterns and momentary triggers that influence inter-annual inconstancy significantly affect the probability of contention beginning. Even within sight of controls; an investigation of minor impacts showed that between yearly changeability matters more than long haul changes in by and tremendous atmosphere.

3. Are the Canadian media active or passive agents when it comes to covering Arctic issues? Illustrate your answer with examples of Canadian media coverage of Arctic issues from 2000 to 2020.

            Through time, broad communications inclusion has demonstrated to be a principal patron – among various elements – that have formed and influenced science and strategy talk just as clear comprehension and activity. Broad communications illustrative practices have comprehensively changed interpretations among science and strategy and have the molded impression of different issues of condition, innovation, and hazard (Lackenbauer, 2009). Inside the effect of environmental change, two additional terms need speedy audit and explanation: environmental change relief and adjustment. Alleviation of discharges is the decrease of nursery gasses discharged to the climate. For a considerable length of time, the leading guide to creating nations for environmental change was connected to moderation exercises.

            Media portrayals have incorporated a full scope of exercises and methods of correspondence. From execution artistry, plays, and verse to news and discussion, media depictions have drawn on stories, contentions, implications, and reports to convey the issue's different features. For example, Lackenbauer inspected depictions of regular perils in books and movies (Lackenbauer, 2009). Broad communications are commonly viewed as a subset of these more extensive media rehearses. Comprehensive discussions have been characterized as the distributors, editors, columnists, and other people who comprise the correspondences business and calling, and who scatter data, to a great extent through papers, magazines, TV, radio and the web. There have been numerous investigations in the course of the most recent two decades that have inspected how broad communications have secured a scope of fundamental issues. For instance, Landriault investigated associations between news media and social developments in the matter of atomic force (Landriault, 2019). The crossing point of broad communications, atmosphere science, and strategy is a potent and high-stakes field of these interchanges.

            Standard strategies that work in different locales frequently have lack when applied to the Arctic. Social pointers often need explicit importance to the Arctic. Long haul perceptions, systems of field-based estimations, and distant detecting procedures are expected to comprehend and measure the impacts of a changing atmosphere and to illuminate and approve demonstrating endeavors (Frieß, Sihler, Sander, Pöhler, Yilmaz & Platt, 2011). Ceaseless deficiencies of fitting information make it hard to create model boundaries and to approve model outcomes.

            Looking forward, we have to investigate the utilization of online life as agreeable wellsprings of data just as helpful devices to educate dynamic. As suggested in the International Study of Arctic Change report, reacting to Arctic Environmental Change, we need advancement of an intelligent, broadly open, partner commitment device that can be utilized to grow new exploration needs and examination questions (Frieß, Sihler, Sander, Pöhler, Yilmaz & Platt, 2011). Foundation of issue trackers distinguishes concerns rising out of networks. Interpersonal interaction would then be able to help with gathering information through rebuilding master thoughtfulness regarding getting the required mastery and partners for critical thinking. Long-range interpersonal communication can empower commitments—through publicly supporting, cultivating neighborhood experimentation, scattering information and best practices, and supporting usage somewhere else—hence spreading advancement among networks, organizations, and industry (Landriault, 2019). Through these agreeable procedures, web-based life can cultivate grassroots ways to deal with Arctic change's proactive administration.

References

Allison, G. (2012). The Cuban missile crisis at 50: lessons for US foreign policy today. Foreign   Affairs, 11-16.

Boslough, M., Ivey, M., Taylor, M., Zak, B., & Backus, G. (2008). The Arctic as a test case for   an assessment of climate impacts on national security. Sandia Report SAND2008-7006.

Frieß, U., Sihler, H., Sander, R., Pöhler, D., Yilmaz, S., & Platt, U. (2011). The vertical    distribution of BrO and aerosols in the Arctic: Measurements by active and passive       differential optical absorption spectroscopy. Journal of Geophysical Research:      Atmospheres, 116(D14).

Garthoff, R. (2011). Reflections on the Cuban Missile Crisis: Revised to Include New       Revelations from Soviet & Cuban Sources. Brookings Institution Press.

Lackenbauer, P. W. (2009). From polar race to polar saga: An integrated strategy for Canada    and the circumpolar world. Toronto: Canadian International Council.

Landriault, M. (2019). Media, Security and Sovereignty in the Canadian Arctic: From the            Manhattan to the Crystal Serenity. Routledge.

Landriault, M., & Minard, P. (2016). Does standing up for sovereignty pay off politically? Arctic             military announcements and governing party support in Canada from 2006 to        2014. International Journal, 71(1), 41-61.

Lukens, C. (2013). Cooperation and confrontation in a post-Cold War high north: An       international relations approach to Arctic security. University of South Dakota.

Reese, J. C. (2019). Cuba to Korea: Applying Lessons Learned from the Cuban Missile Crisis to the Next North Korean Crisis. US Army School for Advanced Military Studies Fort            Leavenworth United States.

Globalism, Globalization, Nationalism

According to Nye (2002), globalism is used to describe a world that is featured by networks of interrelations that revolve around many continents. It explains the inter-relations of the modern world and highlights the patterns that cause them. Globalization is the incline or decline in the degree of globalism. Its main focus is the forces and the speed of the changes. Nationalism is the loyalty to a nation promoting its culture, interests, and placing it before other nations (Sraders 2018). It focuses on a country’s language, culture, and race and also includes shared sports and art but is mainly driven by cultural interrelations. It has a view of conquering other nations as it perceives itself as the ultimate nation and philosophies that contradict the nation are opposed.

Globalization and nationalism conflict when the nationalists strive to have control over their countries and the global structures are what they target. It also conflicts when the globalists underestimate how globalization has caused damage to workers. This is when they dwell too much on the advantages of trade and dismiss the obvious value that the normal citizen still attaches to national borders and cultural cohesion (Eckman & Emeritus 2017). An example of this is when Great Britain headed the first period of globalization where they promoted free trade and the gold standard. This period paved the way for extreme nationalism which produced the World War II.

It is important to be both global and national because, in terms of businesses and trades, it is potential for growth and development. Being global and national helps to expand opportunities making industrialization and trade successful. It is also important in creating inter-connections between different nations and interact on a global level (Eckman & Emeritus 2017). It helps to learn and share different ideas, knowledge, skills, and cultures which lead to innovations and developments. Being global is more important than being national because global offers a lot of different opportunities. Global opens doors for new developments and connections given that there are more people globally compared to nationally. From a global perspective of trade, the market participants are more and better making global more significant and effective for business.

The global challenges in terms of marketing and trade can make us consider local marketing because it tends to be cheaper. The global financial markets have collapsed in the past and this shows how dangerous it can be doing business globally. The financial regulation locally and nationally could hardly lead to a financial market collapse (Eckman & Emeritus 2017). A nation will do its level best to ensure that it promotes local trade because unlike on the global level, it works on growing its economy with the local business. On a national and local level, businesses tend to establish their markets easily compared to globally because in the local scene, as a business, you know exactly what to focus on. The global challenges have helped us on a national and local level because there are no cultural, racial, language barriers that could arise creating conflicts. These are features that could bring about violence on a global level but locally because they will not be barriers, trade, and growth are expected. Religion is also a global challenge that might lead to violence, discrimination, and exclusion but on a national and local level, it would not be a problem and this would make people work and relate better together.

References

Eckman P.J, &Emeritus P. (2017) ISSUES IN PERSPECTIVE: Globalism vs. Nationalism: The

Ideological Struggle of the 21st Century. Retrieved from http://issuesinperspective.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/2017_0121-0122.pdf

Sraders A. (2018) What is Nationalism? It History and What It Means In 2018. Retrieved from

https://www.thestreet.com/politics/what-is-nationalism-14642847

 Organizational Framework

 In talking about reframing organizations, Boldman and Deal say that reorganization should be based on four frames. It is important to note that organizations are multifaceted and therefore leaders should analyze organizations from multiple perspectives.

The politic framework within organizations

Political framework means that when organizations have scarce resources, challenges arise on how the resources should be distributed (Grace et al, 2006). Organization members create disagreement which leads to organizational politics. Disagreement does not only arise due to scarce resources but people develop misunderstandings due to many issues such as power. In this case, the role of the political framework is to allow individuals who differ in values, interests, and perceptions to form a coalition (Grace et al, 2006). Organizational leaders play a significant role in strengthening the coalition building. Also, a political framework means that a political leader supervises the group to ensure that individuals with divergent interests solve the differences and gain unification (Grace et al, 2006). Another point to note about the political framework is that the political leader uses a political power to facilitate negotiation. Note that the organization members become involved in bargaining and negotiation. For them to achieve group goals, the political leader must play an active role to achieve positive organizational outcomes (Grace et al, 2006). For example, some organizational leaders use their power to create an unhealthy work environment. They use threats, bullies, demotions, terminations, and more. According to Bolman and Deal, the political framework means using legitimate power to identify the needs of organization members, allow members to partake in decision making, listen to the ideas of the interest groups, and create group relationships.

 Human resource framework within organizations

            The human resource framework focus on the organization's people and the need to improve the human resources function through empowerment and addressing their needs.  Note that human resources play a significant role within the organization such as influencing employees.  It is important to note that human resources have many talents, experiences, and expertise that the organization use to move forward (Grace et al, 2006). However, for human resources to meet the administrative goals, they expect the organization to recognize their personal and developmental needs. Thus, the human resource framework identifies the needs of human resources and creates a strategic plan to meet the needs (Grace et al, 2006). For example, within the organization, employees may have poor morale and low level of commitment. The organization should use the human resource frame to energize them through different ways such as allow them to express themselves, provide them with rewards and incentives,  creating a positive working environment, and more.

The symbolic framework within organizations.

 The symbolic frame means that in reframing organizations, leaders should create a culture of shared value. For example, leaders should use vision and values, stories, rituals, ceremonies, metaphors, among other symbols in solving problems (Grace et al, 2006). For instance, an organization has a history, and a leader may reflect on the past to build the future. The symbols will help the organizational members understand the past, and eliminate ambiguity. The symbolic framework creates a collaborative culture in that organizational members share values and beliefs. In other words, a symbolic framework means creating an organizational culture where people share values and beliefs (Grace et al, 2006). People should be allowed to focus on meaning and purpose in understanding the organization. Thus, leaders should use symbolic aspects that involve creating tangible meaning. Organizational reality should come as a result of interaction in social construction (Grace et al, 2006). The style of leadership will allow the employees understand meaning and purpose of the organization and increase commitment.

Reference

Grace, D., Korach, R., Riordan, K., & Storm, K. (2006). Assessment and intervention using the

perspective of four organizational frames. Journal of Business & Economics Research

(JBER), 4(10).

Impacts of Nuclear Fission

 The author’s argument is sound and takes a stand against nuclear fission technologies- nuclear fission technology can only be a suitable option if it is better than the existing sources of energy implying that if nuclear energy harms human health and natural surroundings, then it is not a viable option. Taking a clear stand in an argument points to a well-researched background against which the author makes his argument.  Secondly, the author's argument is sound because it does not only take a stand against nuclear fission technology, it draws out a recommendation- humans should look for better energy alternatives if they cannot mitigate the negative impacts of nuclear power. The author goes on to state that one of the many ways of regulating the negative impact of nuclear power is through the installation of mini-nuclear power stations. Mini-nuclear power stations minimize risks commonly associated with nuclear power (Kortelainen et al., 2012).  In other words, the argument states a stand, takes a direction, and describes recommendations. Lastly, the argument gives people a role to play and suggests the formation of the agreement to regulate to use of nuclear power. On the other hand, one somewhat incoherent thing is the inability to specify the impact of nuclear power on human health and the environment and then proceed to argue from that point of view. This makes the argument takes a different direction in terms of planning, point of action, and advantages of nuclear power to the future (Apergis et al., 2010). Thus, the author could have made the argument coherent if he could only specify where the problem is and then formulate ways of interpreting and finding an evidence-based solution. Also specifying the implementation of strategies is important while trying to solve a problem.

References

Apergis, N., Payne, J. E., Menyah, K., & Wolde-Rufael, Y. (2010). On the causal dynamics between emissions, nuclear energy, renewable energy, and economic growth. Ecological Economics, 69(11), 2255-2260.

Kortelainen, M., McDonnell, J., Nazarewicz, W., Reinhard, P. G., Sarich, J., Schunck, N., ... & Wild, S. M. (2012). Nuclear energy density optimization: Large deformations. Physical Review C, 85(2), 024304.

Why elected representatives are not responsive

Democracy is understood as a system that has free and fair elections and other kinds of civil rights that make elections have meaning. These kinds of civil rights include freedom of speech, association, and freedom of the press. This type of democracy is referred to as the representative democracy because of how citizens are involved in making the decisions carried out by the state is by electing representatives to make those decisions for them (Neblo, Esterling &Lazer 2018). Representative democracy is referred to as the “government of the people, by the people and for the people”. This means that representative democracy should entirely cater to the needs and interests of the people. However, it does not only represent the people but also radical parties, countries, and businesses among others. Despite being termed as a people’s representative, it cannot cater to every person or represent their diversity and all their interests making the representatives unresponsive.

The unresponsiveness and difficulties related to the acting people and not necessarily the institutions. This is because the policies of the institutions are clearly defined but the act of representing depends on the representative elected. When the policies of the representatives are not clearly defined, they tend to act upon their ways and what they know is right making them unresponsive to the people’s needs and interests. This is the cause of dysfunctions and lack of good representations for the citizens because some of the representatives act on what benefits them and not the people that elected them (Neblo, Esterling &Lazer 2018). There have been conflicts erupting from the representatives in the point that if a representative should do according to how the constituents prefer and follow obligations and guidelines or if he should be set free to do that what seems best for the welfare of the people. These conflicts make the representative become unresponsive and end up not fulfilling his responsibilities for the citizens in the manner that he should have.

Another complication that causes unresponsiveness and dysfunction is the question of political parties, national concern, and challenges that are a result of being a representative in a diverse community. Most of the time, the local interests are favored because of the notion that the representative was locally elected (Neblo, Esterling &Lazer 2018). Other arguments are that the interest of the local citizens is similar to national interests. This is a cause of dysfunction because in most cases, the local interest is different from the national interest and therefore the representatives need to pursue the national interest just in the same way they pursue the local interests.

Responsiveness is an objective of the democratic government whereby the government responds to the needs and interests of the citizens. Responsiveness is different from representation in that in representation, the government actions reflect the interests of the public opinion. A government can be a representative without a direct responsiveness causal mechanism (Erikson 1). Policies can be responsive to public opinion but rather be biased because of other influences other than the public ones. For responsiveness to work in a democracy, other links in the causal chain must be unbroken. Citizens can vote their representatives in and out of office based on the competence of their policy representation. The reason there is a decline in responsiveness is that some of the representatives are not up to the task and do not believe that they have to follow the public opinion. Some do not have an idea of what their constituents want. Another cause of decline is how the government policy reflects the views of the citizens and also the public has a very limited role in the process of making policies. Examples that show the decline include a low voter turnout and an observed increase in the reluctance of citizens wanting to become politicians. Other problems include political parties losing their origins in the community which is impacted by a decline in responsiveness.

Representative democracy includes a government that is both responsive and responsible. When a government is responsive, it builds support that allows it to come up with decisions that are not necessarily responsive but responsible. When the government is responsive, it builds a reservoir of benevolence that can be used for survival during the more difficult time (Linde, Jonas & Peters 1). Responsive and responsible decisions can be a conflict of interests but they work in situations where they do not need the government to choose between the wants of the people and the responsible thing to do as a government. Political support is a significant factor in the relationship between a responsive and responsible government. The way political parties and representatives act is responsive to the interests of people. Citizens tend to react following the perceptions they get about the political system. This impacts their vote, and also the way they express their support, trust, and lack of support towards the functioning of the political system.

Works Cited

Erikson, Robert S. Policy responsiveness to public opinion. Oxford University Press, 2013.

Linde, Jonas, and Yvette Peters. “Responsiveness, Support, and Responsibility: How Democratic

Responsiveness Facilitates Responsible Government.” Party Politics, vol. 26, no. 3, May 2020, pp. 291–304, doi: 10.1177/1354068818763986.

Neblo, Michael A., Kevin M. Esterling, and David MJ Lazer. Politics with the people: Building

a directly representative democracy. Vol. 555. Cambridge University Press, 2018.

National security

Introduction

 Since 9/11, America has been combating terrorism to protect the population and prevent future threats. For many decades, terrorists have threatened national security but currently, America has realized that many security threats are affecting national security. Today, the greater threat is not terrorism but there are other dangerous risks known as the internal economy.  Unfortunately, elected officials pay little attention to economic issues yet Americans are experiencing huge economic vulnerability. Currently, the national debt has increased to over $22 trillion, and by 2029 the national debt will rise.  Economic problems are a threat to American security.  It is important to note that national security is not only about defining the national borders but national security encompasses other aspects such as the economy and environmental concerns. In the twenty-first century, the current issues being debated are about economic constraints. The U.S is experiencing economic doldrums and the current debate concerning national security is based on ensuring full economic recovery using the rich man's approach.  In return, the economic security will provide the nation with soft powers which will contribute to elements of national security such as economic stability, democracy, sustainable development, and human rights.

In the Nation magazine, Menon (2018) states that the greatest threat to national security is the internal economy though it is a neglected dimension.  According to the federal poverty measures, 12.7% of Americans are poor, half of all Americans do not have savings, and in 2007 and 2014, 11% and 14% of Americans were struggling with the costs of food respectfully (Menon, 2018).  An important point to note is that poverty is not only contributed by unemployment since many Americas have full-time jobs.  However, poverty comes as a result of low-income jobs and low earning.  For example, Americans are in the labor force but they are experience low earning and other problems like part-time work. This means that people are experiencing economic insecurity yet policymakers do not consider this as a big problem (Menon, 2018).  It is important to note that the working poor are homeless, and they sleep on the streets.  They are unable to pay for their medical expenses as they are not enrolled in healthcare plans, they lack food, rent, and transportation costs. The bottom line is that the working poor experience real risk since the government does not assist.  It is important to reconsider the national security from the perspective of economic inequality. 

 The two competing solutions toward maintaining national security through an economic perspective are the macroeconomic policies and microeconomic policies (Nanto, 2011).  Microeconomics means that in addressing the issue of economic security, the government focus on promoting general well-being. The macroeconomic policies entail long-term economic growth, coordination of foreign policies, provision of economic assistance, and development of democracy.  In most cases, policymakers solve economic issues using the national security developed in 2010 but these policies are limited in that they are complex in nature.  In specific, the 2010 national security strategy is concerned with physical security, global financial crisis, federal budget deficit, and the presence of the emerging nations (Nanto, 2011).  However, these policies destabilize national security since they focus on preventing future threats yet they do not address the current issues such as poverty.  These pickles have promoted national security by reducing the budget deficit, fostering economic growth, building capabilities, cooperating with other nations, advocating for human rights, and developing technology and innovation (Nanto, 2011). However, these policies are questioned due to security and economic environment. However, current policy on maintaining national security goes beyond the macroeconomic policies that focus on monetary policy and fiscal policy and pays interest to the microeconomic policy that pays interest to individuals, firms, and industries.  

 The new policy is based on microeconomics or the need to address the issues facing households, workers, and businesses. The microeconomic policy which is also perceived as a 'rich man's approach is deemed necessary in that it focuses on well-being for the Americans.  Even though it is  also concerned with increasing military capability and interacting with other nations, the bottom line is that the  'rich man's approach focus on supplying science and  technology,  natural resources, and other elements that support the citizens to conduct economic activity (Nanto, 2011).  This means that it is the role of federal, state, and local governments to ensure that the  Americas have a stable economy,  entrepreneurial support,  employment,  education and training,  and investing in research.

 However, critics argue that microeconomic policies cannot promote national security as it focuses on the economy under certain conditions. Rather than understanding the whole market, it is interested in demand and supply, costs of production, and labor economies. They argue that microeconomic is associated with unrealistic assumptions or lacks a true picture of the labor issues, it analyzes data from individual behavior, and it unable to solve economic issues from a national perspective (Nanto, 2011). Thus, they support the macroeconomic on the basis that it provides a big picture of the economy. However, critics are wrong since the government must use the micro-economy to understand the social mechanisms.  For a government to make economic policies, it must protect the industry, it must identify uncompetitive practices and protect the industry form abusing their power, it must improve the environmental conditions, and it must control the price (Nanto, 2011). This means that besides putting the general economic factors into concern, the government needs to address the issues affecting the individual citizens and strengthen the economic institutions to achieve democracy and show the international actors that the country is transparent and accountable. Therefore, microeconomic policies are effective in increasing productivity. Workers gain education and training or knowledge-based economy, and they maintain national security through technology capabilities. 

Conclusion

 To solve the current national security, there is a need for a healthy economy. The government should come up with policies that promote human capital capabilities and ensure that the national gains economic viability. Note that without a good economy, life deteriorates and the society disintegrates, Even though the national security needs a strong military capability, it is also important to include the economy as an element of the nation's security. It is important to note that the country does not only depend on border security but other factors that foster democracy such as economy,  politics, global environment, and more need to be considered. Both microeconomic and macroeconomic policies play a significant role in maintaining national security but policymakers pay little attention to microeconomic policies.  The paper recommends that in addressing the current of national security which is affected by the poor economy, policymakers should value the role of microeconomic in benefiting the society as a whole and in the interrelationship of microeconomic elements will ultimately increase the national security.

References

Nanto, D. K. (2011). Economics and national security: Issues and implications for US policy.

DIANE Publishing.

 Menon Rajan. (2018).The United States Has A National-Security Problems And It’s Not What

You Think.  TheNation. Retrieved from:  https://www.thenation.com/article/archive/united-states-national-security-problem-not-think/

                                 Comparison between Paraguay and Philippines

                                    Introduction

This paper will evaluate the comparison between Paraguay and Philippines using different measures of human development.

1. Human Development index

This is an estimate used to evaluate the long term advancement of a country in human development in terms of an extended and healthy life, ingress to knowledge and satisfactory living standards. In 2016, the Paraguay’s HDI was 0.699 ranking it in the high human development classification. Betwixt 1990 and 2016, the HDI recorded a 21% increase from 0.580-0.702. In Philippines, the HDI estimate value in the same year was 0.699 ranking the country in the medium HDI classification. Between 1990 and 2016, Philippines recorded a 19.3% rise in the HDI value from 0.586-0.699.

2. Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index (IHDI)

This is primarily the value of discounted HDI. A decline in the human development is expressed by a percentage of the difference between the Human Development Index and the IHDI. As this inequality rises, the decline in the human development consequently rises. In 2016, Paraguay’s HDI value was 0.522 indicating a 25.5% loss as result of inequalities in the dissemination of the HDI indicators ranking it in the medium HDI nations. In Philippines, the value of the HDI was 0.574 reflecting a 17.9% loss as a result of inequalities in the dissemination of HDI measurement indices ranking it in the lower HDI nations.

3. Gender-related Human Index (GII)

The GII is a measure of the inequalities in gender in relation to empowerment, economic activities and reproductive health. In 2016, the value of GII in Philippines was 0.427 placing it at position 97 among the 160 nations. In this year, women held 29.1% of the parliamentary seats and up to 76.6 of the adult women were recorded to have reached atleast the education’s secondary level.  In the same year, the GII in Paraquay was estimated at 0.467. 16% of the parliamentary positions were held by women, 47% of adult women reported to have reached the education’s secondary level differentiated with 49.2% male counterparts. In the same year, 1,000 out of 100,000 of women aged 15-19 reported adolescent births with 132 dieing due to pregnancy complication. In the labor market 56.6% are women and 83.9% men.

4. Gender Development Index (GDI)

This is an index that defines the ratio of the female to male HDI. It evaluates the gender based inequalities achievements in health, education and the control over economic activities. The female HDI value in Philippines was 0.699 compared to 0.698 males HDI indicating a 1.000 GDI value. In Paraguay, in the same year, the value of the female HDI was 0.690 compared to 0.710 males indicating a 0.972 GDI value.

5. Multidimensional Poverty Index

This is the population’s percentage that is poor multidimensionally modified by the magnitude of the deprivations. It shows the size of the population living in deprivation and the degree of deprivations. Between 2000 and2016, the value of the multidimensional poverty in Paraguay reduced by a 9.2% annual average rate from 58% in 2000 to 17% in 2016. In 2016, approximately 7% of the population was living under multidimensional poverty. In 2016, the MPI in Paraquay was estimated at 0.019. The intensity of this deprivation, which reflects the average deprivation rate experienced by the society in multidimensional poverty was 41.9%.

In Philippinnes, the MPI was estimated at 23.9 percent. Between 2000 and 2016, this index reduced from 47% in 2000 to 9% in 2016 indicating an improvement in the HDI.

Conclusion

It is worth noting that the HDI alone is not a reliable measure of human development.

.

.

                                                            References

United Nations Development Programme, Human Development Reports,2019. http://hdr.undp.org/en/data

Congress and the Public

Introduction

The members of the public have over the years been tasked with the mandate of electing their leaders to represent them in the Congress. While voting, the voters tend to believe they are making the right choice. They believe the candidate they vote for will represent their needs while in the congress. However, this tends to change, after the elected members get to the Congress. They tend to forget the promises they made during the political campaigns, hence not delivering. In this case, the members of the public lose trust in politicians owing to the fact that they cannot stick to their word. Similarly, they also feel unappreciated, and thus losing interest when it comes to voting, a move which consequently leads to a low voter turnout during the elections. For that reason, this paper will discuss the extent Bartels argues that the link between the members of the Congress and the public on matters of income inequality, and also include other authors in addressing whether the members of the public are sufficiently represented by the members of the Congress.

According to Bartels, all members of the public should be treated equally regardless of their level of education or class in life (Bartels, 2002). Nonetheless, this is not the issue in the US, owing to the fact that the wealthier, and well educated are given the first priority by the members of the Congress. This is in relation to the support that they may offer the members of the Congress when it comes election.  The poor and less educated citizens are less likely to participate in voting, a move which basically makes them less important to the members of the Congress. In addition, the members of the Congress are concerned with people who will be of help to them, hence being able to win the elections. While the representation of the members of the public is supposed to equal according to the dictates of the constitution, the poor are side-lined, and the distribution of services is not affair at all.

The members of the Congress believe wealthier as well better educated citizens are well formulated and well informed, hence they are more likely to turn out to vote. This consequently means that the wealthier are also more likely to have direct contact with public officials, thus they have chances of contributing more money and energy to aid in political campaigns (Jones & McDermott, 2010). Due to the privileges that the politicians are likely to enjoy from the affluent in the society, it becomes necessary for politicians to give them the first priority when it comes to the distribution of resources (Bartels, 2000). Politicians are majorly concerns with those who will be of help to them, thus they will only adhere to the needs of the rich while forget about the poor constituents who must be represented as well. This is basically the reason as to why areas with huge numbers of the poor tend to lag behind in terms of development as compared to areas surrounded by the rich.

On the other hand, income distribution in the US has also changed over the past two decades, with considerable gains in real income among those at the higher level outstripping much more diffident gains in the middle as well as the lower classes (Jones & McDermott, 2010). The increase in salaries has also taken the same pattern as the distribution of resources, whereby the upper class gets high salary increments as compared to the middle and lower classes. These disparities are also based on the notion that the upper who are also the rich will be of help to the political class, and thus increasing their salaries betters the chances of the upper financing politicians in their political campaigns. For instance, the average real income for the richest one-fifth of families in the US increased by more than $50,000, which is more than 50%, between the periods of 1980 and 2000 (Bartels, 2002). Likewise, the normal real income of the poorest one-fifth rose by less than $1,000 which is about six percent. The salary increment levels have led to lower voter turnout among the middle and low class level citizens since 1960. This has been attributed to the income disparities as well as unequal representations of all citizens in the country. Even though this is a critical issue, the members of the Congress do not view it as a serious issue since the rich are not complaining, and they also turnout when it comes to voting. Regardless of whether the common citizens enjoy or do not enjoy the distribution of resource, the members of the Congress are only focused on achieving their own goals, and not on improving the livelihoods of the poor within the society. The poor do not consequently have a choice but to accept life as it is since the elected leaders do not seem concerned with their interests as they do not add anything to the table when it comes to political campaigns and the future of politicians.

Correspondingly, Berelson et al, also argues that the Democratic Party makes decisions based on the interest groups which tend to aid the party in winning the senatorial seats (Berelson et al, 1995). Moreover, the distribution of services is based on the groups which are able to not only aid the party in getting huge number of elected members of the Congress, but also those who may help in seeing the party being capable to win the presidential election. In this case, there is none other class than the rich, since they are the well-educated, hence they are more likely to make decisions which will see the future of the party being brighter (Jones & McDermott, 2010). The Democrats were not focused on the general delivery of services to the public, but on the provision of services to those who were of importance to the party’s wellbeing. This is basically the upper class citizens who understand the functions of the government, and who are most likely to affect the party if they shift their allegiance or political affiliations. Nevertheless, the members of public who fall under middle and lower classes were more probable to shift allegiance from the party since it is only concerned with the rich in the society and does not in any way support the poor. 

Likewise, Popkin also argues in a similar manner, whereby he states that voters tend use demographic facts which include race, gender, ethnicity, religion, and social origins in order to make elect their leaders (Jackson, 2015). This is simply a shortcut, since they do not get to understand the traits of the leader they are electing, and the interests of the leader. In so doing, they are more vulnerable to misrepresentation in the Congress, for the reason that they elected the wrong candidate. On the other hand, during the political campaigns, politicians use all means to bond with the lower class as a means of showing them how they are concerned with their affairs. For instance, a politician can visit a Mexican restaurant and eat tacos as a means of bonding with the voters of a Mexican decent in the region. In so doing, the voters in the region tend to view the candidate as the perfect choice, forget about the interests of the candidate.

It is because of being misinformed and the lack of knowledge in making the perfect choices that makes the poor to suffer in the society. While at the same time the rich tend to enjoy the privileges which all members of the public are supposed to enjoy (Jones & McDermott, 2010). Immediately after the elections, the senators disappear from sight, and instead focus on ways of supporting and meeting the demands of the rich within the society. This happens while the poor continue suffering, since they are misrepresented by the leaders they elected. The rich on the contrary, make decisions based on the leaders who are more likely to support their interests (Jackson, 2015). Thus they may finance political leaders who will meet their demands hence politicians are majorly focused with these groups of people, because they understand what they want, and will not elect a person based on demographic factors. The rich only focus on the attributes of the candidate, before making a move, it is for this reason that they are prevalent to high salary increments and development.

The level of Bartels responsiveness is appropriate in the sense that the wealthy are more focused on the results they will get from the people they elect as opposed to the poor. The poor are not majorly focused on the results, but on the candidate, since they only focus on the political attributes of the candidate, a factor which makes them to wrong decisions when it comes to voting. In order to ensure equal representation of all the members of the public, the members of the Congress should focus on providing services to both the reach and the poor, through proper allocation of resources the rich and poor without favoring any sides. In addition, their focus should not only be on those who support them, but also on the representation of the members of the public regardless of their social classes. In so doing, the poor will see the need of voting a move which will positively impact voter turnout rates in the country, hence increasing the chances of better performing leaders being re-elected without having to rely on funding from the rich.

Conclusion

The political class just as discussed in the paper, is majorly concerned with the rich, owing to the fact that they are well informed and well educated. These attributes allows them to make critical decisions on the political leader they may want. In addition, they are also likely to support the politicians through funding political campaigns, the members of the senate tend to address their grievances once they get to the office. On the other hand, the poor who misinformed and less educated tend to elect leaders based on demographic factors, a reason which makes elected leaders not to rely on them when it comes to voting.

Reference

Jackson, J. S. (2015). The American political party system: Continuity and change over ten presidential elections.

Bartels, M. L. (2002). Economic Inequality and Political Representation: Department of Politics and Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs, Princeton University.

Bartels, L. (2000). Partisanship and Voting Behavior, 1952-1996. American Journal of Political Science, 44(1), 35-50. doi:10.2307/2669291

Berelson, P. F., Lazarsfeld, and William N. M. (1995). Voting: A Study Of Opinion Formation In A Presidential Campaign: University of Chicago Press.

Jones, D. R., & McDermott, M. L. (2010). Americans, Congress, and democratic responsiveness: Public evaluations of Congress and electoral consequences. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.

Greer, J. M., Moberg, D. O., & Lynn, M. L. (1996). Research in the social scientific study of religion. Greenwich, Conn: Jai.

The Difference between the political system in England/Britain and other European states in the late seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.

Introduction

A political system refers to the process that is used to develop Government decisions. The political system in Britain and the other European states differed enormously beginning with the different methods of ruling they had. Both governments had different policies that governed their states. The differences between their political systems were mostly defined by the reigning rulers at the time, the government, and the different revolutions that took place.

Great Britain and Europe’s government had major differences concerning the absolute states. The British governmental structure was signalized by the division of authority between the king and the parliament whereby the parliament was more superior. The parliament had the mandate to develop policies, impose levies, pass the financial plan, and indirectly impact the ministers who worked for the king (Merriman 450). In the eighteenth century, the British government was governed by two groups. The people in both of the groups were landowners and had the same economic interests and intermarried frequently. 

In the eighteenth century, most of the European nations were governed by the monarchs. In the occurrences of the French revolution, the revolutionist made France a monarchy making the king have little authority (Merriman 451). The theory of popular authority became real as individuals assisted to bring down the absolute rule. Enlightened absolute affected the partisan growth of the European nations in the eighteenth century. The idea of natural rights were privileges that were not to be concealed from anyone. These were rights that included the right to worship, right to the law, freedom of the press, and speech among others. 

In the eighteenth century, the industrial revolution in Britain made it one of the richest countries in the world. The changes that were made in the methods of farming and breeding of stock led to a growth in food production. More people could be fed by agriculture whereby items were sold at lower prices (Merriman 450). Contrary to other people in the rest of Europe where even the general British families didn’t have to use their money to purchase for foodstuffs, giving them the prospects of buying manufactured commodities. Britain had a ready stock of resources for financing the new production factories and machines. Britain owned a central bank with properly developed credit facilities. This was also an addition of the income and profits they got from the industry. The English revolts of the seventeenth century had helped to develop the industries in Britain. The government in Britain played a very important role in regards to industrialization. 

In the eighteenth century, Britain was first Europe’s country to be industrialized. Governments used tariffs to facilitate industrialization (Merriman 454). In the eighteenth century, low priced commodities flooded the continental markets. To protect their markets that were emerging, the French responded with high tariffs. This is because low-cost goods from Britain would overrun the market and destroy the small industries that had just started to grow. The European states could not be able to compete with Britain unless the protective tariffs were put in place.

The crippling economic crisis that faced the monarchy caused the French revolution. French had been at war with Britain and the financial support that France provided the revolutionary colonists against Britain had been financed by loans that were arranged by the minister of finance. Some of the expenses that were encountered were used to maintain the army and the navy and were also used to pay debts. That made the monarchy live beyond its means and it could not get more funds. The economic crisis of the monarchy was connected to the nature of its monetary system (Merriman 455). The absolute monarchy in France did not efficiently collect taxes as the British government did. The bank of England in Britain provided the government with loans at a low interest through the national debt. There was no central bank in France making the monarchy depend more on high interests and suffered a difficult evaluation of financial obligations. The French general debt was higher than that of Britain and it continued to go up as the monarchy looked for financial solutions.

The protestant amendment had established the law of state having control over the churches solving the differences between the state and the church. In the eighteenth century, protestant churches from the state grew all over Europe but there still in other European countries there were protestant minorities. In the seventeenth century, the Catholic Church exerted a lot of power in the catholic European states and the church continued to become wealthy (Merriman 466). In many of the catholic countries, the highest ministers are the ones that received revenues from the tithes of the followers. There was a large gap between the upper and the lower ministers. In the eighteenth century, the many catholic government's states started to seek more control over the churches in their countries.

 It is claimed that coffeehouses only existed in London. It is a place where people went to discuss social and political issues (Pincus 801). The coffee house society was gender-specific and the women were kept out. The public sphere arose as a result of contradicting interests between limiting interests in finance and trade capitalism. Members of parliament presume that the coffeehouses had limited mental horizons by not knowing much and had little care for Europe and the entire world. This is because the interactions made there were limited and only included local discussions.

 Later in the seventeenth century, the public spheres emerged again but this time it had no gender or class exclusion and were defended by religious and political judges Coffeehouses began to do well in England and this made other states emulate them making it a place where people went to interact and read newspapers. It was a place where news spread very fast and contained all sorts of political discussions including g the issues that the British ere facing (Pincus 821). Evidence shows that Britons went in plenty to the coffeehouses because it was a place that they could gather information, and political gossip, malign or celebrate the government. The coffeehouse did well in Britain because it provided the planning for the unfolding of the public sphere.

Conclusion

The differences between Britain and the other European states were characterized by time, kings, and the revolutionists. Revolutions were made throughout the centuries and were made to improve the existing policies. The revolutions included the French revolution that was brought about by the economic crises. There also was the Industrial revolution which was concerned with making goods and food available to the people. It also ensured that the methods of farming and livestock breeding benefited the owners and the country as a whole. There was the existence of coffeehouses that were places where people discussed politics, interacted, and read newspapers.

Works Cited

Merriman John. A History of Modern Europe: Revolutionary Europe 1789-1850. W.W Norton & company, New York London, 2019

Pincus, Steve. “‘Coffee Politicians Does Create’: Coffeehouses and Restoration Political Culture.” The Journal of Modern History, vol. 67, no. 4, 1995, pp. 807–834. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/2124756. Accessed 16 May 2020.

European Refugee Crisis

Introduction

A migrant is defined as any individual moving or has moved across an international border that is away from their original place of residence regardless of the individual’s legal status, length of stay or reason for relocation be it on a mandatory or voluntary basis. Despite the various reasons why people opt to migrate to different countries, the issue of immigration is often regarded as a problem that needs fixing. Often times, migrants are either considered as people escaping a crisis or whose relocation is likely to cause problems in the country they settle in. This is despite the human history of migrating from one place to another for various reasons not limited to escaping a crisis. In most countries, people have a primordial attachment to their natural habitat which creates the illusion that existing in a specific area makes one providential to it. The idea that people belong in specific places has greatly contributed to the restrictions imposed to curtail immigration. Although different countries have the right to protect their land, the use of borders in Europe and other parts of the world to stop refugees from migrating is unjust as it denies them access to basic rights and freedoms while exposing them to life-threatening conditions and should, therefore, be abolished.

Problem statement

It is estimated that there were 272 million refugees globally in 2019, a figure that had increased by 51 million people compared to those that immigrated in 2010 (UN 1). Immigrants, therefore, accounted for about 3.5 of the global population thus prooving the serious nature of the immigration issue (UN 1).  The increasing number of migrants, combined with the assumption that immigration is a problem in need of fixing has pushed different nations to advocate for stricter measures aimed at controlling migration across borders. Countries in developed parts of the world such as Europe have imposed stricter immigration policies in an attempt to control illegal immigrants from entering their borders. In 2016 however, almost 5.2 million migrants reached Europe from regions such as Iraq, Afghanistan and Syria. In 2018, 138000 individuals risked their lives coming to Europe by sea and over 2000 drowned before reaching their destination (UNHCR 1). Out of those that made it to Europe, 32400 were helped by the UNHCR and relocated to 20 countries across Europe (UNHCR 1). Despite the strict restrictions, people continue risking their lives and a lot of them end up dying due to the challenges involved such as crossing the sea to reach Euorpe.

The policies overly focus on restricting access to the country but fail to take into consideration why some people risk their lives while fleeing their country. Often times, the decision to relocate is based on the desire to access better opportunities and resources that may not be present in the migrant’s country of birth. There are migrants who choose immigration as a way to seek out a better livelihood or the desire to live close to family and relatives in the country of choice (Omidvar 1). In such cases, the borders that restrict refugees from migrating are unjust as they act as a restriction to the migrant's right to movement. Since human rights are universal, people’s freedoms out to be respected across different borders (Omidvar 1). While governments have the right to control entry in and out of the country, denying migrants entry on the basis of their country of origin is discriminatory and denies them the same opportunities offered to those in the country the individual is trying to relocate in.

Analysis and Discussion

Borders that stop refugees from relocating to new countries should be abolished because they are relatively ineffective and only make the migration process more dangerous for refugees. It is estimated that over 200 million migrants make their way into the United States from different parts of the world every year (Brouwer & Kumin 3). In Europe, there were over 28000 refugees arriving to the region by sea from Greece, Italy and Malta among others. There were also 584 individuals who were reported as either dead or missing due to the dangerous conditions experienced trying to access Europe either by sea or land. Despite the various restrictions aimed at preventing border crossings, migrants are forced to seek out alternative ways to make it past the borders and into the shores of Europe. One of the negative effects of border restrictions is the increase in cost needed to secure passage across the border. Migrants are often forced to seek out third parties that now their way across the boundaries and can help them across the borders. The third parties, however, require a mode of compensation and this is often monetary or forced labor for their role in helping migrants cross the border. In cases where crossing the border is difficult due to the policies imposed by the government, migrants are forced to pay more and this often places them at a disadvantage (Brouwer & Kumin 10). Instead of saving resources to start living in a new country, most people spend their money paying smugglers to get them across the borders. Once in the country, the migrants have to struggle before finding employment with some being forced to go hungry or perform menial jobs just to get by.

Another negative consequence of restricting migration is the increasing number of temporary camps used to hold refugees before deportation or while they wait to be legalized as is the case in Europe. Since the border restrictions do little to prevent legal entry into a country, those that make their way into the country often end up in temporary camps that detain illegal immigrants. Immigrants detained in the nominal temporary camps are exposed to inhumane living conditions (Hayter 13). This is especially because the borders act as a line to determine whose human rights are important and which can be waivered. Since illegal migrants come from different countries nationals in charge of the temporary camps tend to treat them as criminals rather than human beings. The camps are often crowded, unsanitary, and unbearable for human beings. While at the camps, the immigrants’ right to movement is curtailed and some immigrants are placed separately from their families (UNFPA 23). The policies used to control immigrants often focus on the issue of immigration and fail to take into consideration the negative impact that the restrictions have on individuals.

Border crossings should also be abolished because they are the major cause behind the high number of people that lose their lives trying to cross the border. When refugees are unable to immigrate to a country legally, they seek out the services of people who sneak them in illegally. Some of the routes chosen by the smugglers are however dangerous and most people lose their lives in the process (Hayter 17). In cases where the decision to immigrate is unavoidable, the restrictions at the border force people to seek out alternatives that often put their lives at risk. Some smugglers, for instance, rely on routes that cross desserts or mountain passes that are covered in snow. Others are ferried across oceans and hid in boat compartments where living conditions are unbearable. Although some immigrants manage to survive the journey, a significant number lose their lives (UN 1). Various bodies have been discovered in desserts and mountain peaks where the migrants either froze to death or died of dehydration. Others wash up on beaches after being discarded from the boats carrying them at sea because the smugglers care little about their lives.

Objections in support of border restrictions

 An argument can be made in support of the restrictions at the border with the claim that each country has to bear responsibility for its citizens. The argument has a basis in that, the border restrictions only prevent foreigners from entering another country. In such a case, the need for border restrictions is practical as it ensures that the opportunities that exist in the border country are reserved for only its citizens (Anderson et al 7). While it is true that countries should protect the interests of their citizens, countries in the developed world have a moral responsibility to look after the interests of people in countries that are not well off (Anderson et al 7). Instead of enforcing strict restrictions, nations should seek better ways to manage how immigrants enter the country so as to help them without affecting the livelihood of the nation’s residents.

Defence against border restrictions

The assumption that border restrictions are meant to protect the interests of the citizens is based on the misinformed idea of the life that refugees live once they migrate to another country. Other than restricting movement at border crossings, governments have taken an extra measure to curtail the rights and freedoms that migrants enjoy even after they settle into a new country (Anderson et al 14). Some of the rights that protected migrants after relocation such as a permanent residence or refugee status are now being denied and migrants often work as temporary foreign workers. The migrants are considered illegals and this denies them access to some of the opportunities and resources that made them relocate from their country in the first place. Regardless of whether an immigrant enters the country legally or illegally, the policies enacted to regulate migrants are designed with the same intent as those that stop border crossings as they all aim at ensuring that refugees do not make it inside the country they choose to relocate to (Anderson et al 15). The border restrictions have created an environment where immigrants are no longer treated as a human with rights once they enter a foreign country.

Conclusion

Borders that stop refugees from migrating into different countries are unjust because they deny people access to basic human rights and freedoms. The restrictions fail to prevent migration but end up making the migration process more dangerous. Refugees who try to work their way across borders despite the restrictions are forced to endure inhumane conditions and at times risk their lives. The tough restrictions mostly favor smuggles who end up hiking the cost of being smuggled across the border. in cases where people flee their country as a means to save their lives, the high cost and risks do little to discourage illegal crossing because the threat to one's life is more serious. While some do make it across, the frequent loss of life as a result of the dangerous paths that smugglers use only prooves the unjust nature of border restrictions. Instead of approaching immigration as a crime, more efforts should be placed towards solving issues that force people to become refugees. The border restrictions ought to be abolished so as to ensure that every human being has access to basic human rights and freedoms, regardless of their country of origin.

References

Anderson, Bridget,. Sharma, Nandita,. and Wright, Cynthia. “Editorial: Why no borders?”            Refugee Research, 2009, retrieved from, https://refugeeresearch.net/wp-       content/uploads/2016/11/Anderson-et-al-2009-Why-no-borders_.pdf

Brouwer, Andrew,. and Kumin, Judith. “Interception and asylum: When migration control           and human rights collide” UNHCR, 2018, retrievd from,             https://www.unhcr.org/afr/4963237d0.pdf

Hayter, Teresa. “Open Borders: The Case against Immigration Controls.” Critical Social Policy, vol. 21, no. 4, Nov. 2001, pp. 544–546, doi:10.1177/026101830102100421.

Omidvar, Ratna. “The biggest issue facing migrants today and what we can do to solve     them” World Economic Forum, 201, retrieved from,          https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2016/11/the-biggest-issues-facing-migrants-          today/

UNHCR, “Refugee crisis in Europe” 2020, retrieved from, https://www.unrefugees.org/emergencies/refugee-crisis-in-europe/

United Nations Population Fund, “Meeting the challenge of migration: Progress since the             ICPD” 2020, retrieved from, https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-          pdf/migration_icpd.pdf

United Nations, “Migration” 2020, retrieved from, https://www.un.org/en/sections/issues-            depth/migration/index.html

Book Review

Introduction

The book, ‘The United Arab Emirates: Power, Politics, and Policy Making’ Kristian Coates, provides an in depth analysis of the UAE, through analysing the progress it is making as a country both politically, economically hence being a significant regional power. Reading the book consequently gives the reader an understanding of the how the UAE as a country is focused on achieving its dreams. In addition, the book also provides the reader with a broad understanding of how the country runs its affairs, rather than focusing on entertainment as Dubai is majorly known for. For that reason, this paper will provide a book review of the book, whereby it will make available a description of the book then provide a synopsis, before finally providing a critical evaluation.

A Description of the Author’s Project

The author wrote the book with the aim of providing an understanding of how the UAE plays a critical role in policy making, politics, as well as in matters concerning superiority in the Middle East and Northern Africa. The author has concisely provided information with relevant support, of how the country has been able to maintain a positive relation with its neighbouring Arabic countries, hence being able to emerge as an important regional power. In addition, the book has also discussed the innumerable procedures of state formation as well as political and economic development that have allowed the UAE to remain at the core of its mission of reuniting the Arab countries, as well as partnering with other countries in a bid to realise its dreams. Likewise, as a regional power, the country was able to play a critical role in the post Arab Spring through the reorganization of the Middle East together with the North African politics. In order to remain successful in its quest to being a regional power, the UAE has also partnered with the US in matters concerning military and the security of the region, “state formation and political and economic development that have enabled the UAE to emerge as a significant regional power… (Kristian, 1)” On the other hand, the author has provided a detailed description and explanation of the way through which the UAE has aligned itself both politically and economical in order to safeguard its position as the regional power in the Middle East.

The book has basically answered all the questions the author had presented henceforth, providing relevant information regarding UAE’s move towards success in the region. In addition, each section has been critically analysed by the book, for example, the book has addressed the success of the country chronologically beginning with the year the country attained its independence, down to the way the seven emirates are working together to achieve a common goal. On the contrary, the author has also addressed the challenges faced by the country, which includes the 2008 financial crisis and its impact which led to an imbalance between the two emirates Abu Dhabi and Dubai, “However, the 2008 financial crisis and its aftermath underscored the continuing imbalance between Abu Dhabi and Dubai… (Kristian, 1)” in so doing, the author has been able to make the book all rounded, in the sense that it does not only focus on one side, but both the challenges the country has been facing on its journey to achieving its goals.

Synopsis

The main issue being addressed by the author in the book is concerning the political and economic advances that have allowed the UAE to surface as a momentous regional power. The book focuses on a broad field of exploration in the UAE and offers an analysis to position the country as a main player in the post-Arab spring as well as reorganisation of the Arab Nations in the Middle East and Northern African politics, with the aid of the US which offers assistance in issues concerning security within the region. Similarly, the book also explores the unpleasant foundation of that growth in regards to the state of affairs of migrant workers, current involvements in both Yemen and Libya and recently, one of the country with the highest number of prisoners per capita all over the world. Furthermore, the book also provides a discussion of the probable policy encounters which the UAE is likely to face in the near future particularly as it moves to its 50^th anniversary in the year 2021 (Kristian, 1).

The book has focused on the progression of events in the country, and the likelihood of the country experiencing challenges based on the policies it’s making. Abu Dhabi and Dubai are most likely to be at loggerheads with each other, for the reason that Abu Dhabi seems more superior as opposed to Dubai (Kristian, 19). This is not however a matter of critical concern, owing to the fact that the UAE government is working on ways through which it can come with solutions to such issues. Besides, issues such as strict laws in the country which may affect the migrant population are also being discussed, nonetheless, Abu Dhabi and Dubai seem to have different laws concerning the migrants in the country.

Dubai and Abu Dhabi being the most populous emirates in the country, laws have been made based on the events and activities taking places in these emirates. The author provides evidence concerning this matter through analysing the events which have unfolded and exposed the challenges being faced by the federation, “Meanwhile, the post-2011 security crackdown revealed the acute sensitivity of officials in Abu Dhabi to social inequalities and economic disparities across the federation (Kristian, 2).” The author also asserts that the country can only remain peaceful if the smaller states are represented equally as compared to the populous states in the country. If this is not so, then the country is likely to experience challenges because smaller states feel unappreciated, hence making them to feel less significant to participate in the country’s affairs, “Opportunities for small states to make their voice heard have proliferated in today’s intensely globalized environment where concepts of power of influence are projected through multiple channels… (Kristian, 2)” The focus of the country remains on the territorial size and population in decision making, rather than in equal representation of all the citizens in the country, regardless of location in which they are.

On the other hand, the book also focused on the relations between the UAE and the US and its impact on the UAE as a country. For many years, the US has provided military support to UAE, owing to the fact that the Middle East has experienced a number of wars over the past few decades. The relationship between the two countries dates back to Iraqis invasion of Kuwait in 1990. Iraq had initially accused Kuwait and UAE of reducing oil prices, thus making Iraq to experience huge losses. In retaliation Iraq invaded Kuwait, but the UAE could not take chances hence opted to seek an alliance with the US, which aided the country with air support in course of the invasion. The relationship between the countries has been a success because the UAE has been able to remain stable despite being in a region which is faced by war, making the country to remain stable and rich. This relationship has resulted to the internationalization of the UAE foreign policy. A move which has seen the country receiving a huge number of tourists. Likewise, the country has also enhanced ties with Russia, India, China, Brazil and South Africa in order to grow its economy through tourism in the country. These ties have seen tourists from the five countries travelling to the UAE while at the same time investors from other countries investing in the UAE which is a major boost to the country’s economy, “Similarly, the Russian Business Council in Dubai estimated that up to 100,000 Russians were resident in the emirate in 2016. (Kristian, 153).”

The UAE has also focused on the relations between countries in the Middle East, through uniting them, and advocating for a common course. For instance the country partnered with Saudi Arabia and vowed to support it in order to reach its goals. Moreover, the main objective of the UAE is to maintain peace and security with the aid of the US in the Middle East and Northern African countries. This has therefore been the reason as to why the UAE has been the regional super power as if focuses on improving the relations between the Arab countries.

Critical Evaluation

According to my point of view, the book provided information which was backed up by evidence and a critical analysis of events. This consequently makes it great for the reason that the author did not make allegations, but provided the reasons as to why he made such allegations. In addition, the book does not only heap praise on the UAE, but it also focuses on its flaws, and warns of a possibility of challenges particularly in the coming years. Each and every point provided by the book is viewed in all sides whereby the author provides the positive and negative side of the information provided. For instance, the author UAE’s relationship with the US is significant for wellbeing of the country, however, the UAE is also allied to Russia, which is otherwise a political enemy of the US, an issue which may result in a collision between the two countries.

On the other hand, the book has also failed to provide a detailed explanation on the reason as to why the author felt the UAE may mediate between the US and Russia, thus bringing the two countries to terms with each other. The author has not provided any evidence regarding the matter, not has the information provided talked about the likelihood of the UAE holding talks with the US and UAE in order to solve the issue facing the two countries which have been embroiled in cold wars for a long period of time. Nonetheless, the author has provided a critical analysis on the measures that the UAE has put in place in ensuring it remains a powerhouse in the region.

Work Cited

Kristian Coates Ulrichsen. The United Arab Emirates. Power, Politics, and Policymaking. Routledge. (2017).