Influence on Competitive Markets, Price, Quality, and Monopoly in Healthcare

Introduction

Competitive markets comprise several producers that compete with each other to produce goods and services that the consumers need and want. This concept also applies to the price and quality of a good or service. This means that a single producer cannot decide the price and the quality of good air services. A monopoly is a market formation that is characterized by a single seller who does not face any competition. In a monopoly, the seller has the advantage of setting the price for the goods and services.

 In the healthcare environment, it is assumed that competition among companies helps to increase value for patients. That means when there is competition the patients get better products and services to satisfy their needs. The costs of a product or a service to determine customer satisfaction is another assumption. Research shows that competition has the ability to increase value for customers. In healthcare, the role of competition is to implement strategies that reduce healthcare costs (Rivers & Glovers 2008). Competition eradicates incompetence that might bring high production costs which are conveyed to the patients through high product and service costs. Quality and costs have a long term impact on the loyalty of the patients. Innovation helps to improve quality and reduce costs and without incentives to sustain it, the short-term cost savings are overburdened. The failure to develop innovation leads to low-quality services.

The price of a service can be high because of the high demand. High prices are also caused by the limited supply of a good or service. Price and utilization factors are influenced by the choices made by the consumer (Babalola 2017). For example, a consumer in healthcare will not be influenced so much on the price but will also want quality services. 

Other consumers will want the best quality at a lower cost. But in most cases, a consumer has to sacrifice one for another because it is rare to find all.

Monopolistic competition does not work for the healthcare system. This is because, in healthcare, competitors inefficiently invest to enlarge capacity that increases the fixed costs (Andreas 2018). The competitors then have to raise their prices to be able to pay for their extra investments in fixed costs. There are also extra fixed costs for differentiating a product where companies evade direct competition by selling the idea that their products differ from their competitors.

Conclusion

Competition in the healthcare system helps to improve the services and products of consumers. This ensures that the services and products satisfy the customer. Price and quality are of the essence to a consumer and the healthcare system and are influenced by the choices they make. Monopolistic competition in healthcare has a lot of inefficiencies in the healthcare system making it hard for it to thrive.

References

Alcohol Withdrawal Treatments and the CIWA

Introduction

Alcohol withdrawal treatments are done to people who are dependent on alcohol. This happens following a planned or an unplanned reduction of alcohol intake. The CIWA is a ten-item scale that is used to assess and manage alcohol withdrawal. Every item on the scale is recorded independently and the total sum of the scores generates the total value that connects to how the alcohol withdrawal is severe. The ranges of the scores are developed to come up with specific management decisions. The alcohol withdrawal process is followed using the CIWA.

 The diagnostic markers that indicate Mark has an acute withdrawal syndrome are nausea and vomiting, tremors, anxiety, agitation, paroxysmal sweats, auditory disturbances, visual disturbances, and a headache. This was all recorded on the CIWA scale for Mark. The CIWA is among the most used withdrawal assessment scale and according to Kattimani & Bhardwaj (2013) it is used to measure the severity of the withdrawal syndrome. Mark’s total CIWA- Ar score was 25 points and a score that is more than 20 points is an indicator of a severe withdrawal syndrome.

The appropriate course of action for Mark should be withdrawal management and this will include medical and psychological care. This because withdrawal management will help to reduce Mark’s discomfort and show compassion which will help to build trust between him and his treatment staff. Because withdrawal management does not lead to sustained sobriety, after the completion of the withdrawal, Mark should be followed up and should be engaged in psychosocial interventions.  According to Clinical Guidelines for Withdrawal Management (2009), these interventions will involve cognitive and behavioral therapy which will help him get more knowledge on the symptoms and withdrawal impacts and how to deal with them. They will also help him know how to take care of himself and how to interact with other people around him. These interventions which include therapies will help Mark to change his thoughts and hence change his behaviors too. System triggered therapy will be important for Mark because he has been his scores have been assessed by the CIWA and therefore the right help and medication will be administered to him according to the scores. Mark will require medical treatment and close observation so that he cannot go back to the drinking behavior again and because his life is in danger.

Mark will also require drug treatment because the symptoms that Mark has shown that he is suffering from severe withdrawal syndrome. Enough sedatives should be given to him to calm him as early as possible and bring down the symptoms he has (Kattimani & Bhardwaj 2013). Fluids should be administered to him because the withdrawal causes dehydration which is brought about by sweating vomiting. The objective of the treatment for Mark is to be able to contain the symptoms of alcohol withdrawal that he has and prevent them from progressing to serious medical complications. Treatment will also help him to be able to maintain a long term recovery.

Since Mark has severe symptoms, pharmacologic interceding will be of help to him. Mark will need nutritional support because most patients with acute withdrawal syndrome most likely don’t check their diets. This results in nutritional deficiencies making them weak. Mark should be supplemented with folic acid and thiamine routinely (Kattimani & Bhardwaj 2013). This will help to reduce the chances of him getting other serious conditions. He will need magnesium supplements because for a person who is having an alcohol withdrawal normally has low magnesium levels. Administering these drugs will help to suppress the withdrawal symptoms

Symptom triggered therapy for Mark will be important because it is a treatment of alcohol withdrawal that requires a patient to be given medication only when they have the symptoms. This means giving therapy to a patient only when they need it. According to Hoffman & Weinhouse (2019), research shows that symptom triggered therapy attains superior clinical results while lower total doses of sedatives are required. The time spent in the hospital and the treatment period is short for the patient too. Research shows that this method of therapy is effective and yields better clinical results. It decreases the occurrences of severe and life-threatening withdrawal syndrome which will work best for Mark.

DSM is the quality classification of mental disorders used for clinicians, researchers, and policy comorbid makers (Hassin & O’Brian et al). It is important for Mark because it will help to diagnose and treat him. Mark will be diagnosed with substance dependence and this is because there is a need to focus on the severity of dependence over the abuse diagnosis. The objective of DSM is to make sure that patients get the best and needed care and also improve the convenience of the clinicians and the researchers. It is of great importance and impacts how disorders are diagnosed, treated, and explored. When DSM is included in Mark’s diagnosis it will help to contribute to giving details that will pave the way for more appropriate treatment. The DSM process includes balancing of needs that are normally in competition. The process also requires experts with different backgrounds and points of view and to come together to get solutions.

A combination of elements is highly encouraged in DSM to enable further studies and clinical experience (Regier, Kuhl & Kupfer 2013). The patient and clinician completed strategies that make the clinicians evaluate the symptom areas that are relevant to most mental disorders. There is another level of strategies that are particular to more in-depth evaluation when a specified area is validated. In case the criteria for diagnosis is fulfilled, another level of dimensional evaluation may help to initiate severity. Withdrawal symptoms are particular to the physiological impact of the substance. In DSM, withdrawal is demonstrated by a person having the typical withdrawal symptoms for a substance. Another manifestation is when a person uses the same substance to keep the particular substance withdrawal symptoms.

Conclusion

Alcohol withdrawal treatments are important and are done for individuals who are dependent on alcohol like Mark. The CIWA helps to come up with a score showing the severity of the symptoms of alcohol withdrawal. This helps to guide the withdrawal treatments that are recommended for a patient. Acute withdrawal syndrome is represented by severe symptoms and is represented at the final score of the CIWA. Fluids should be given to a patient undergoing withdrawal treatments due to dehydration. Nutrition for the patients should also be checked because most alcohol withdrawing patients have nutritional deficiencies. DSM helps to diagnose mental disorders caused by alcohol withdrawal. It has a great effect on how different disorders are diagnosed and treated.

References

Clinical Guidelines for Withdrawal Management and Treatment of Drug Dependence in Closed

Settings. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2009. 4 Withdrawal Management.

Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK310652/

Hasin, D. S., O'Brien, C. P., Auriacombe, M., Borges, G., Bucholz, K., Budney, A., Compton, W. M., Crowley, T., Ling, W., Petry, N. M., Schuckit, M., & Grant, B. F. (2013). DSM-5 criteria for substance use disorders: recommendations and rationale. The American journal of psychiatry, 170(8), 834–851.

Kattimani, S., & Bharadwaj, B. (2013). Clinical management of alcohol withdrawal: A

systematic review. Industrial psychiatry journal, 22(2), 100–108

Regier, D. A., Kuhl, E. A., & Kupfer, D. J. (2013). The DSM-5: Classification and criteria changes. World psychiatry : official journal of the World Psychiatric Association (WPA), 12(2), 92–98.

 Identify Four Therapeutic Communication and/or Professional Boundary

Introduction

            Attending to patients can be rewarding as well as fulfilling, nonetheless, in some cases, it becomes emotionally and physically exhausting. Nurses take care of patients while at the same time doing customer service. Upholding a professional, well-mannered interactive relationship may be a bit challenging. However, this is critical in a patient’s general health and well-being. Creating a healthy nurse-patient relationship is significant, in the sense that it allows the nurse to closely monitor the patient, encourage and to also offer the best services to the patient. In most cases, patients lose hope, thus it takes the effort of the nurse to encourage the patient hence bringing the patient’s hope back to life. In as much as nurses are supposed to create a close professional relationship with patients, it is necessary to understand the personal boundaries, because some patients have a preference for not being touched. For that reason, this paper will address poor nursing practice, professional boundaries, and how they may affect patient safety and patent-nurse relationship. 

 Errors the Impact on Patient Safety

1. The nurse has not put a scrub and a cap thus exposing her hair.
2. Poor Communication Skills by the Nurse

Impact of the Errors on Patient Safety

The nurse as seen in the video has not put on proper dressing for her job. As a professional nurse, one is supposed to put on a lab coat, or a scrub, and a nursing cap. In Sandra’s case, the nurse was not wearing a cap, even though she had long hair which made her turn her head from time to time (UTS Health, 2018). While entering the ward, the nurse had not properly kept her hair, prompting the patient to ask her questions concerning her safety. Similarly, the patient seemed irritated by the fact that the nurse was not wearing a cap, and when asked about it she did not seem to care. Leaving the hair exposed can carry germs, as well as dust which may not be healthy for the patient. The patient was also asthmatic, and small particles of hair or even dust coming from the nurse’s hair could affect the patient’s health. 

            As seen in the video, the nurse shook her head, before tying her hair by so doing, some pieces of hair could have easily fallen from her head, and they may have entered the patient’s body while she was breathing. The nurse should have consequently worn a cap, to avoid negatively affecting the patients’ health. On the other hand, while testing the patient’s blood pressure, the nurse openly tells the patient she does not remember how to use the sphygmomanometer (UTS Health, 2018). The nurse then goes ahead to tell the patient that the measurement does not have to be accurate, thus she gives her an estimated measurement. As a professional nurse, one is supposed to communicate professionally, thus enabling the patient to feel secure while at the hand of the caregiver (Ulutasdemir, 2018). In this case, the nurse did not follow these guidelines but instead decided to do things differently. Likewise, taking an estimated measurement of a client’s blood pressure is detrimental to the patient’s health, for the reason that the patient was suffering from PV bleeding. Presenting false or a measurement that is not appropriate could easily put the patient’s health at risk because the treatment administered would be based on the patient’s blood pressure (Perry, Potter & Ostendorf, 2016). If the patient’s blood pressure higher than the recorded measurement, then the drug administered may not work properly, or else the wrong drug may be administered hence negatively affecting the patient’s health.

Errors Impacting Nurse/Patient Relationship

1. The Nurse did not put the Patient First, in that the Patient was not her Main Priority.
2. The Nurse exceeded social Limits

Impact of Errors on Patient/Nurse Relationship

            When it comes to a patient-nurse relationship, the nurse did not use proper language while communicating with the patient. Also, the patient did not put the patient first, and she would even check her phone while addressing the patient. More so, to be close to the patient, the nurse would regularly move closer to the patient. Nurses are required to be active listeners, to understand the intent, feelings, and the contents of the patient. This was not, however, the case with the nurse, as she kept on talking from the moment she entered the ward, to the moment she left. She did not seem to care about the patient’s feelings, because she did not ask the patient basic questions as it required of a nurse (Perry, Potter & Ostendorf, 2016). Furthermore, the patient was not given the chance to express herself, how she felt, and how she was fairing on. In this situation, the patient was not comfortable at all with the nurse, and she would have preferred not to disclose significant information to the nurse. Besides, the nurse would also tell the patient information about her fiancée, to the point where she would show her the pictures in her phone. In so doing, the nurse breached the requirements of a nurse which is to focus on the patient’s needs rather than sharing personal information (Finkelman, 2009). 

            Maintaining eye contact with the patient is a good practice which all nurses are supposed to have, nonetheless, this was not the case with the nurse. Furthermore, the patient should smile, and use a calm and welcoming voice while communicating with the client (Taylor, 2012). The nurse is also required to understand who the patient is through proper communication which enables the patient to feel comfortable and while receiving the care as well as treatment. Through practicing these approaches, the patient easily bonds with the nurse, enabling the nurse to understand changes in the patient’s reaction and response to medication (Webb, 2020). In Sandra’s case, she decided to delve deeper into the patient’s personal life, and would go ahead and ask her about the person she was dating (UTS Health, 2018). The actions of the nurse did not help in creating a bond between the patient and the nurse, but it seemed to break the bond further. This is so because, the patient felt insecure, and would not easily disclose information, due to the fear of getting a negative review from the nurse who did not seem bothered by the patient’s feelings. 

            In as much as nurses are supposed to be close to patients, they should observe certain limits. For instance, a nurse is not supposed to be too attached to the patient, as this may lead to affection, in a situation where a nurse is a man and the patient is a lady (Ujhely, 2013). This goes against the dictates of professional nurses, thus they should keep distance when it comes to matters relationships. A nurse is required to be clear concerning the boundaries, hence in if a patient indulges the nurse in a close relationship then the nurse has the authority to cut off the communication based on the codes of ethics. In Sandra’s situation, she overstepped her mandate of taking care of the nurse, and instead ended up creating a bad picture of nurses (UTS Health, 2018). The patient would rate all nurses based on how she was treated by a single nurse. On the contrary, sitting too close to the patient was also not right since some patients do not prefer when someone else is too close to them. Patients lack confidence in nurses who move close to them or even touch them, a factor which eventually affects the patient’s response to treatment. 

Conclusion

            Professional nurses are supposed to maintain a close relationship with their patients in a bid to enhance the care and treatment given to the patient. The nurse should also communicate with the patient clearly and concisely hence winning the patient’s confidence thus making it easier for the patient to tell the nurse about her condition. Moreover, just as discussed in the paper, the nurse is supposed to speak to the patient in a calm and welcoming manner, while at the same time understanding the mood and attitude of the patient. In so doing, the patient can easily create a good relationship with the patient, thus allowing the patient to respond to medication positively. On the other hand, a nurse should not be too attached to the patient as this might lead to the affection which is wrong according to the code of ethics. 

References

Alvinius, A. (2017). Contemporary leadership challenges. Rijeka: Croatia in Tech.

Bast, R. C. (2017). Holland-Frei cancer medicine. Shelton Conn: People’s Medical Pub

Committee on the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation Initiative on the Future of Nursing, at          the Institute of Medicine., Robert Wood Johnson Foundation., & Institute of Medicine (U.S.). (2011). The future of nursing: Leading change, advancing health. Washington,    D.C: National Academies Press.

Finkelman, A. (2009). Professional Nursing Concepts: Competencies for Quality Leadership.       Jones & Bartlett.

Lowey, S.  (2019). Nursing Care at the End of Life: What every clinician should know.     (product id 23958320). S.l.: OPEN SUNY.

Perry, A. G., Potter, P. A., & Ostendorf, W. (2016). Nursing interventions & clinical skills.          St. Louis, Missouri: Elsevier.

Taylor, E. J. (2012). Religion: A clinical guide for nurses. New York: Oxford University Press.

Ujhely, G. B. (2013). Determinants of the Nurse-Patient Relationship. Berlin, Heidelberg:            Springer Berlin / Heidelberg.

Ulutasdemir, N. (2018). Nursing. London: IntechOpen.

UTS Health. (2018). 92431 Patient-Nurse Interaction. Retrieved from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gePTPA0wcag&feature=emb_title

Webb, L. (2020). Communication skills in nursing practice. Open University Press.

 Health care reforms

Identification of a problem

            In the contemporary world, various health care reforms that have been implemented by the governments are the ones that have greatly impacted the delivery of care services to individuals and the community as a whole. Despite that, current research indicates that the failure to review existing health care policies ended up diminishing the efforts used by the health care institutions to provide better health care services. For instance, the failure of educating the community about the significance of having a health care insurance cover, it have limited them from accessing them. Ideally, ensuring that each person can access better health care services is one of the primary reasons that have compelled different states to come up with better health care policies.

Research question

            What is the primary reason that makes health care reforms formulated by the government, ministry of health, and health care institutions to fail in fostering the provision of affordable care services to patients and/or their families?   With the Affordable Care Acts, it has been realized that the reforms that are formulated and implemented by the government are efficiently utilized by care providers. Therefore, answering this research question will aid in evaluating the importance of health care reforms in minimizing hospitalization costs.

Data and method

            Method- This methodology will take three steps. The first step will involve explaining the source of the data collected. Secondly, an explanation regarding the results of the data collected will be provided. Third, personal recommendations will be given and finally a concluding paragraph.

Data- data for this research will be obtained from the World Health Organization (WHO) journals published within the last nine years. The information documented regarding the views of the key stake-holders about contemporary health care reforms will also be taken into consideration. Open-ended questionnaires will be used to collect information from both public and private health care facilities.

     A graph showing the number of uninsured individuals against time in years

                                    Y-axis 

                                        100

                                   90

                                   80

Uninsured individuals    70

                                   60

                                   50

                                   40

                                   30

                                  20

                                    10

X-axis

                                                     2010   2011   2012   2013   2014   2015   2016   2017   2018   2019

            Retrieved from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5069435/

Results

                   From the graphical representation above, it is evident that the effective formulation of health care policies has the potential of increasing the number of people accessing care services. For instance, with the increase in the number of uninsured individuals each year, the trend of the graph indicates that access to better care services will decreases because a large percent of the patients might not afford it. Accordingly, with the Affordable Care Acts, the data obtained above illustrates the fact that in recent years, the decrease in the number of uninsured people has made it possible for patients to have easy access to better medical care. Nevertheless, the efforts that are put into place by the World Health Organization (WHO) is also another factor that affects the implementation of these reforms. Ideally, the strategies that are employed by the ministry of health aid in monitoring the long-term effects of the health care reforms to the entire community (Thompson, 2014).

                    Nevertheless, the annual data collected for constructing the above graph suggests that variations in health care coverage could have been influenced by the changes in strategies that are annually used to formulate and revive various health care reforms. For instance, it was found out that several conventional health care development approaches are the ones that have been causing a huge disparity in health care provision. The absence of hospital efficiency in offering affordable and accessible health care services has also been impacting the proper implementation of health care reforms and other acts.

Discussion

                   According to the results of this research, one of the requirements for each annual health care reform is for each country to ensure that it has put into place measures that will encourage the use of better strategies to improve care services. Although the use of supportive strategies has been noted to enable medical institutions and physicians to quickly extend their services to patients, an annual evaluation of its impacts should be taken into consideration (McDonough & Milbank Memorial Fund, 2011). What this implies that technological advancement is also another factor that has enabled patients to understand the importance of seeking insurance cover. The affordability of insurance cover is also linked with the provision of improved health care services.

                    In addition to that, by ensuring that policymakers, researchers, patients, and physicians have been provided with accurate information regarding changes in health care reforms, research indicates that the rate of deaths has decreased considerably. This is because, with that information at hand, physicians can understand what is expected of them. Health care beneficiaries also are allowed to understand their medical rights. Because of political, social, and economic changes, poor implementation of the new reforms have been realized to be negatively impacting the development of health care institutions (Malani & Schill, 2015). Consequently, effective determination of the health care reimbursement mechanisms used also has a profound impact on how patients are willing and ready to cater for the services they demand.

                   Other than adding value to the health care reforms made, it becomes possible for medical institutions to at least meet the requirements of the patients that they serve. Reviewing global health care systems is also another process that has the propensity f improving the approaches that can be utilized to make effective health care reforms.  The same strategies will be based on the normative approaches that assist in fostering effective administration of technology in health care research (Escobar et al., 2010). In return, it becomes easier for the government to disseminate important information to the public regarding the provision of incentives to them. The same approach will take into account how such reforms will be directed towards preventing the spread of various ailments (National Academic of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (U.S), 2018).

Recommendations

                    With respect to the information gathered above, governments and medical institutions need to review their health care policies for the benefit of the community. To do so, the strategies they will use should be based on the reforms formulated to improve the social and economic wellbeing of people.  Moreover, in the process of revising the existing health care policies, each ministry of health should ensure that it has restricted the use of conflicting policies that limit the capacities of medical institutions to meet the health care requirements of each patient (Thompson, 2014).

                   Nowadays, government expenditure is one of the means of ensuring that health care resources are readily available in each medical institution. As a result of that, the government needs to ensure that the reforms established by various health care organizations like (WHO) are meant to increase the supply of such resources. This is an important approach in determining how effective those reforms are in optimizing the utilization or provision of care services to patients by physicians. As a means of improving the efficiency of medical institutions, balanced development should be considered as a key factor in formulating better health care reforms (National Academic of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (U.S), 2018). The reason for that is because it is this mechanism that will ensure that each medical institution in each region of a country has enough resources to cater for the needs of patients.

                   Likewise, for the government and health care institutions to ensure that each person can afford health care services, it is important to collect personal details regarding his or her insurance cover. Ideally, at times some of the health care services a person requires can keep on varying in terms of its affordability. Therefore, it is vital for the government, ministry of health, and medical institutions to join hands in educating the general public about the significance of obtaining health care insurance coverage. In return, it will be possible to collect detailed records regarding the annual impacts of the health care reforms implemented by such organizations.

Conclusion

                   From the information compiled above, it has been realized that numerous challenges that medical institutions have experiencing would have been brought about by poor health care planning. From the existing health care evidence, it is logical to say that medical institutions are obliged to ensure that the health care services that they provide to patients should be based on the newly implemented policies. Considering the implications of the Affordable Care Acts, it can be stipulated that it is paramount for individuals and the community to ensure that the reforms that are formulated and implemented by the government are professionally utilized. To identify and address the health care gaps that exist, continuous analysis of the number of people who have managed to get insurance policies. To formulate successful health care reforms, it is important to ensure that various stakeholders have been included.

References

Escobar, M.-L., Griffin, C. C., Shaw, R. P., & Brookings Institution. (2010). The impact of health insurance in low- and middle-income countries. Washington, D.C: Brookings Institution Press.

In Malani, A., & In Schill, M. H. (2015). The future of healthcare reform in the United States. Chicago : The University of Chicago Press  

McDonough, J. E., & Milbank Memorial Fund. (2011). Inside national health reform. Berkeley: University of California Press.         

National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (U.S.)., National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (U.S.)., National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (U.S.)., & National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (U.S.). (2018). Crossing the global quality chasm: Improving health care worldwide. Washington, DC : The National Academies Press

National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (U.S.). (2018). Health-care utilization as a proxy in disability determination. Washington, DC : The National Academies Press

Thompson, T. (2014). The Affordable Care Act. New York, NY: Greenhaven Publishing LLC.

Why Healthcare should be a Human Right/Free

Health is a value asset to human beings owing to the fact that without health we cannot exist. As Mahatma Gandhi states “It is health that is real wealth not pieces of gold and silver Rao, 26).” However, we live in a society where healthcare is purchased, health and wellbeing need therefore be a priority and a human right for all. Everybody should have access to free medical care regardless of their age, colour, or gender. Health should come first thus it should be free for all. Every individual anywhere should access healthcare without suffering monetary hardships.

Nobody should be bankrupt once they get sick since sickness affects work output. In a recent research, absence from work leads to losses of up to £18M in the United Kingdom (Burgess, n.p). In addition, chances of losing a job while sick are very high owing to the fact that one may not be able to offer manpower while at the hospital. In the event that the patient does not have a medical cover then the medical bill will be on the patient. For instance if a person is bedridden for six months, the employer will most likely lay off the person, a move which will require the patient to offset the bills with his or her savings. Given that the cost of medical care is very high, it becomes impossible for the patient to fully cater for the bill, this consequently leads to bankruptcy. Once the patient lives the hospital it becomes difficult to adapt without money and a job. In the end this only leads to evil acts within the society such as crime. Healthcare should consequential be free as they can also help to stop the world’s worst diseases.

The world’s worst diseases can only be stopped if everybody will have access to proper healthcare. The world’s worst diseases such as cancer, HIV/AIDS, and tuberculosis can be controlled through providing free medical care to the sick. In third world countries, most patients succumb to these diseases for the reason that they lack funds to cater for their medical needs. Cancer if detected in its early stages can be treated, however, in situations where healthcare is not free, cancer can only be detected its late stage making it impossible for the patient to survive. In 2019, Africa recorded half a million cancer related deaths, for the reason that they had not been detected earlier. Similarly, in 2014, cancer patients paid a total of $4 billion for cancer treatment in the US this money did not come from medical cover but from their own pockets (Cancer Action Network, n.d). This basically means the cost of medical care is very high hence the poor are at the risk of losing their lives. Deaths from such diseases should therefore be expected to be on the rise if healthcare will not be considered a human right. Likewise high medical care costs could only mean lack of access to medical care, which in turn positions those suffering from diseases such as cancer at the risk losing their lives.

Health has the ability to change the economy and the nation at large because every coin capitalised in health can produce thrice the invested amount (Burgess, n.p). For example, money that most people spend on healthcare can be transferred into other areas, such as paying for school fees, starting a business, or saving for future use. Educating one’s children is significant in the sense that in the fast changing world, it is necessary to be educating for one to earn a good job in future. Furthermore, while at school children are protected from evil vices such as drug abuse and crime. Secondly, starting a business is important for the economy and the state, because once a person starts a business, there is a possibility of job creation, which eventually leads to economic growth. In addition, job creation reduces crime rates within the county. Lastly saving money for future use is necessary, as nobody can predict the future, thus it is good to have money for future use in case things go wrong in the near future. In deed if healthcare is free then a country’s economy can be at its peak, and minor issues within the country will also be dealt with.

Health is a right and not pleasure it is necessary for everybody to be healthy in order for everything to go well. A country cannot survive with a population of sick people thus health is necessary for all. Everyone is supposed to access healthcare regardless of their financial status and this is so because each and every individual positively affects the growth of the economy when healthy (Burgess, n.p). However, if a person is sick, then the services offered by the person to the society cannot be rendered. For example, if a teacher teaching a class of 100 students gets sick and is unable to access medical care, the students will not learn because the teacher is sick. Judging from the impact of the services offered by the teacher, it is not significant for such a person to be absent from work, since most people depend on the individual. Health is basically a right, since in order for all individuals to carry on with daily activities, it is necessary for them to be healthy. Besides, all employers cannot permit sick employees to work, due to the fact that they need to be treated for them to work.

Right to healthcare promotes entrepreneurship, which in turn leads to the creation of job opportunities and economic growth. In a study conducted in 2014, 6.1% of those looking for jobs started their own businesses in the U.S after the introduction of Obamacare (Schimmel, 66). In addition, this translated to an increase in job creation and a decrease in criminal activities in the country. Correspondingly, the private sector also experienced a growth, with the employers being able to save enough money to start multiple businesses in the country. Growth in the private sector also leads to creation of more job opportunities, thus relieving job seekers the pain of looking for jobs. The country also experienced an economic growth which is positive for the general wellbeing for the country. Making medical care free is necessary for relieving employers the burden of paying for medical cover for their employees while at same time catering for other expenses. The burden of paying for medical bills tends to discourage most people from investing due to the fear of making less profits. It is therefore necessary for the healthcare to be considered as a human right and free for everyone in a bid to encourage productivity in the world.  

Work Cited

Cancer Action Network. The Costs of Cancer Addressing Patient Costs. American Cancer Society. (N.d). retrieved from: https://www.fightcancer.org/sites/default/files/Costs%20of%20Cancer%20-%20Final%20Web.pdf

Burgess, Emily. 5 Reasons Everyone Must Have Universal Health Coverage. Global Citizen. Dec 12, 2014. Retrieved from. https://www.globalcitizen.org/en/content/5-reasons-we-all-must-have-universal-health-covera/

            Schimmel, Noam. Presidential Healthcare Reform Rhetoric: Continuity, Change Et Contested Values from Truman to Obama. , 2016. Internet resource.

            Rao, C. B. India’s Economic Resurgence: A Modified Paradigm for a Welfare State. Notionpress.com. 2013. Internet Resource.  

Alcohol Addition and the Effectiveness of Pharmacological Therapy

            Alcohol dependency is a critical health issue linked to long-term consequences. Alcohol addiction is indeed a disease which makes a person to rely on alcohol in order to survive. Its severity varies from one person to another, since some drink heavily, while others may only binge drink thus staying sober for a while. Alcohol dependency is hard to recognize, as most people tend to drink after work. Nonetheless, alcohol addiction is diagnosed when a person is not able to perform daily duties without being intoxicated (Baltieri et al, 8). Addiction consequently leads to increased frequency of use which eventually leads to poor performance at work. For that reason, different therapies are used to treat this condition. This paper will consequently discuss alcohol addiction and the effectiveness of pharmacological therapy in its treatment.

Alcohol Addiction

            Alcohol consumption has adverse effects on the human body, most of which may affect proper functioning of the body. Alcohol affects the central nervous system thus leading to poor speech delivery, which is usually a problem with most drunkards. After drinking, the transfer of message between the brain and the body becomes altered thereby leading to impaired judgement (Sharon et al, 6). On the other hand, alcohol addiction is also associated with diabetes, as it affects both pancreas and liver. Pancreas and liver are significant in regulating insulin use and its reaction to glucose, hence if the liver is not functioning properly one is at risk of experiencing hypoglycaemia (Soyka, 5).

            On the contrary alcohol dependency is equally a critical issue, since most people become enslaved to alcohol. In such a situation it is impossible to stop drinking, and withdrawal can be fatal. In such a case medical detoxification becomes the only solution to being sober. Medical detoxification is a benign way to ensure one disrupts physical addiction. Finally, alcohol addiction also reduces work productivity while increasing work accidents. Most alcohol addicts tend to work while under the influence of alcohol making it difficult for them to make the right decisions thus leading to work accidents, particularly those who work in machinery plants. In addition, due to being less productive at work, most employers tend to lay off alcohol addicts (Sharon et al, 6). As such unemployment leads to heavy drinking which results in loss of life.

Pharmacological Therapy

The main objective of most alcohol addicts is to achieve abstinence and avert relapse. There are multiple pharmacological agents in the market which are effective in averting relapse, however this section will focus on the following disulfiram, acamprosate, and naltrexone, how effective they are.

Disulfiram is an effective drug in the treatment alcoholism as it causes unfriendly effects when alcohol is consumed in small amounts. Through constraining enzyme aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH) disulfiram is able to deter alcohol intake (Baltieri et al, 8).  The effects of the drug include vomiting, nausea, sweating, choking, as well as anxiety. Unpleasant effects are caused by the conversion of ethanol to acetaldehyde by alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH), which is eventually converted by ALDH to carbon dioxide and acetic acid. This happens 10 minutes after alcohol enters into the body, and effects last for more than an hour (Soyka, 8). The main objective of the drug is to discourage an addict from taking alcohol, even though it is not a cure for alcoholism. In as much as this therapy might seem effective, it is not appropriate for all patients, as it can only help those who have a problem with heavy drinking. This makes it the best remedy for alcohol addiction since 70% of those who use this therapy tend to fully abstain without relapse (Baltieri et al, 8). 

Acamprosate is used with the support of counselling as well as social support to aid heavy drinkers who have stopped taking alcohol to avoid relapse. Acamprosate helps in restoring the functioning of the brain to normal after being destroyed by too much drinking (Baltieri et al, 6). On the contrary, it does not avert the withdrawal indications that are experienced when people stop drinking alcohol. Conversely, the drug helps in reducing distress associated with withdrawal, hence inhibiting a relapse. It does not have any effects on the body since it is not absorbed by the liver and it is not affected by alcohol use meaning it can be used by any patient regardless of their medical conditions. Acamprosate is nonetheless effective in that in a recent study, 86% of those patients fully recovered from the addiction (Sharon et al, 7). On the other hand, there was a 9% chance of relapse among those who recovered.

Naltrexone is used to prevent those who are addicted from relapsing. It is also used as a complementary drug for alcoholics as well as drug addicts in general (Sharon et al, 7). On the other hand, it cannot be used by people who are under opiates such as methadone, since it can lead to withdrawal symptoms. Naltrexone neutralizes alcohol in the body, thus making the person not to feel the effects of alcohol in the body, as such, the person loses interest in alcohol. It is however not effective when used alone as it does not reduce alcohol cravings. It is therefore supposed to be accompanied by other medications as well as counselling. The success of the medication when accompanied by other medications is 70%. Among the side effects of the therapy are insomnia, diarrhoea, headaches, and nervousness (Soyka, 7).

Work Cited

Baltieri, Danilo Antonio, and João Maria Corrêa Filho. “Role of Two Clusters of Male Alcoholics in Treatment Retention.” European Addiction Research, vol. 18, no. 4, 2012, pp. 201–211. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/26790616. Accessed 24 Apr. 2020.

Soyka, Michael. “Alcohol Use Disorders in Opioid Maintenance Therapy: Prevalence, Clinical Correlates and Treatment.” European Addiction Research, vol. 21, no. 2, 2015, pp. 78–87. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/26790977. Accessed 24 Apr. 2020.

Sharon Swain, Taryn Krause, Phillipe Laramee and Stephen Stewart

BMJ: British Medical Journal

Vol. 340, No. 7761 (26 June 2010), pp. 1412-14

Blockchain in healthcare

Introduction

The emergence of the Covid-19 pandemic has made the world aware just how ill prepared the health industry is to handle a global pandemic. While the disease was detected early enough to prevent spread to other regions, the response systems in play especially regarding medical emergencies across countries made it difficult to contain it in time. this is especially because the information being communicated during the early stages of the outbreak did not communicate the seriousness of the situation. There are however measures that can be taken to not only improve sharing of information, but also help in managing crisis and future pandemics. Blockchain technology for instance can be used as a tool in the healthcare industry to assist in surveillance, information sharing and in so doing, make medical institutions better prepared for a pandemic in future.

Background

             The spread of the Covid-19 across different geographic barriers can be attributed to the inefficiency of the systems put in place to address such situations. When the outbreak occurred, China was operating on a system that is an upgrade of systems put in place five decades ago (Meijer 1). Although the system may have been suitable for managing the country’s health industry, the emergence of the Covid-19 pandemic exposed the need to adopt better means of providing health not just in China, but across the world (Meijer 1). While attempts have been made to try and contain the virus, success in the projects undertaken have proved difficult as it is increasingly hard to share information. This creates a barrier as international communication is hindered and actions that require swift decision making tend to take longer than necessary, making it harder to overcome the pandemic.

Main issues

            One of the issues that have made fighting the Covid-19 pandemic difficult is the lack of transparency and timely sharing of information. For there to be positive results, epidemiologists and other specialists tasked with resolving the crisis must have access to timely information regarding the disease, how it is spread, the way it affects people, symptoms and any other data that may help to better understand the disease (Bhattacharya et al 1). There are however various restrictions such as political hostilities and lack of trust that have made it difficult for countries to share date on how the disease has affected the country. Even though most countries are working together to resolve the crisis, the lack of transparency combined with factors such as language barriers, distance and location of the outbreak, to mention a few have negatively impacted progress.

Solution

            Blockchain Technology is an ideal tool to help prevent future crisis from occurring and also help managing such a crisis if it occurs. Blockchain’s major advantage in the health industry is the boost it would give to the amount of data a health facility could hold and also how easily the data is accessible (Reiff 1). Blockchain relies on various technological advancements such as immutable audit trails, robustness, data provenance and decentralized management. This combined with the multiple nodes in the permissioned blockchains bear the capability to share data and report vital findings instantly without having to worry about issues related to security, privacy and other regulations. In the event of a crisis, health institutions, with the assist of blockchain technology, can therefore share information not just locally, but also with other countries without the risk of sharing sensitive and confidential information (Reiff 1). The actions taken during a pandemic will therefore be strictly be focused towards resolving the medical crisis with little politics being involved.

            Blockchain can help health institutions by increasing the speed and safety in which information and data is shared, not only internally but with different countries when necessary. It can be used to track infections disease outbreaks by analysing public health data stored. Since blockchain offers security and helps maintain confidentiality, it also increases transparency which makes action more efficient as decisions are made faster (Jayaraman 7). In case of a pandemic, blockchain can be used to share information regarding how a disease is spread, symptoms, how to stop it and other measures that have been employed elsewhere and have yielded better results. Since blockchain allows for storage of huge amounts of data, it gives researchers access to all the information they need to manage the spread.

            Blockchain can also help to track down the origin of the pandemic which could better explain the nature of symptoms experienced. Other than the disease itself, information about those affected, their previous medical conditions and any medical history could create better understanding of the disease (Jayaraman 7). When researchers are informed, the information they share to the public and those responsible for managing the spread serves as an added advantage as people are more comfortable tackling a problem they understand.

            Blockchain can also help during pandemics by promoting supply chains in different sectors. Since trust is a major factor, the suppliers can act as the intermediaries where different health institutions and governments across different countries can supply raw materials. When making vaccines or cures, nations can depend on suppliers similar to how trade is conducted. Raw materials can make their way through various supply chains and reach across different parts of the world. Blockchain can make the supply chains more efficient by making information readily available to speed up processes. While the challenges during and after a pandemic have proven difficult to comprehend, blockchain technology can help make the recovery process faster and more efficient.

Work cited

Bhattacharya S, Singh A, Hossain MM. Strengthening public health surveillance through blockchain technology. AIMS Public Health. 2019;6(3):326–333. Published 2019 Sep             2. doi:10.3934/publichealth.2019.3.326

Jayaraman, Raja. King, Nelson, and Salah, Khaled, “Improving opportunities in healthcare           supply chain processes via the internet of things and blockchain technology”       International Journal of Healthcare Information Systems and Informatics, 2019, retrieved from,             https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330875530_Improving_Opportunities_in_H            ealthcare_Supply_Chain_Processes_via_the_Internet_of_Things_Blockchain_Techno       logy

Meiejer, Carlo, “Blockchain and Corona virus: Could it prevent future pandemics?” 2020,            retrieved from, https://www.finextra.com/blogposting/18570/blockchain-and-corona-            virus-could-it-prevent-future-pandemics

Reiff, Nathan, “Blockchain explained” Investopedia, 2020, retrieved from,             https://www.investopedia.com/terms/b/blockchain.asp

The importance of Birth Control in an Adolescent life

Introduction

Birth control is any method that is used to prevent conception. Birth control in adolescents is important because this is the time they become sexually active. It is used by both genders and helps to reduce the risk of unintended pregnancies. Knowing about the importance of birth control is crucial in an adolescent life because it is during that part of life that humans start to experiment with physical needs. 

Birth control which is also known as contraception is intended to prevent pregnancy. The different methods of birth control work in different ways. According to Stoppler (2016), birth control types are placed in three main categories. These are reversible and permanent types of birth control and emergency contraception. Types of birth control that prevent the sperm from reaching the egg include condoms, diaphragms, cervical caps, withdrawals and contraceptive sponges hence referred to as the barrier methods. Other types that prevent the woman’s ovaries from releasing eggs that could be fertilized include vaginal rings, birth control pills, patches, injections, and emergency pills. 

Stoppler (2016) states that there are other types of birth control such as IUD devices which are implanted in the uterus and can last for several years. Another one is an implantable rod that contains a progestin hormone and is put under the skin on the inside of the upper arm. There is also sterilization which prevents a woman from conceiving permanently and it also prevents a man from getting a woman pregnant. Natural birth control includes the ovulation test kits, examination of the cervical mucus, and the menstrual cycle tracking.

For the hormonal birth control types, the side effects are nausea and vomiting, acne, weight gain, bleeding or spotting, breast tenderness, and swelling, mood swings, changes in the menstrual flow, and sexual desire. Oral contraceptives could lead to serious complications such as stroke, heart attack clotting of the blood, and high blood pressure. Women who smoke heavily are at a higher chance of getting these serious complications because “cigarette smoking increases the risk of these complications” Stoppler (2016). The side effects of the barrier methods of birth control are urinary tract infection mostly when using a diaphragm and spermicide. When a diaphragm is left for longer hours, they are an increase in the risk of getting toxic shock syndrome. Other people may develop allergies from the chemicals that are used in the spermicide creams or products. This may irritate the penis or the vagina.

Emergency contraception birth control side effects are vomiting and nausea, headache, exhaustion, dizziness, breast pain, and pain in the lower abdomen. The IUDs side effects are worsening of the menstrual bleeding and cramping. Another rare side effect is the puncture of the uterus. For the hormonal IUDs, they cause side effects similar to the ones of the hormonal contraceptives. How you use a birth control method matters and being that “abstinence is the only 100% effective birth control method, other methods can be almost as effective when used properly Stoppler (2016).” The efficiency of a birth control method depends on the correct use of the method.

According to Stoppler (2016), the least sufficient birth control methods include, having no birth control at all which means that” using any type of birth control is better than using none at all. “Stoppler (2016. Others are spermicide, female condom, and withdrawal. The most effective types of birth control methods are, implants and the IUDs, birth control injections, birth control pills, and the vaginal ring. Other most effective methods are male condoms, diaphragm, cervical caps, and the birth control sponge.

Higgins & Smith (2016) state that birth control is used to reduce pregnancies that are not intended and also to decrease the morbidity and the mortality that is related to pregnancy. It also has social and economic benefits especially for women, for example, they can reach the level of education they would like to. It also helps one to have personal freedom in the stability and satisfaction in a relationship. This means that birth control use is important in both sexual and general health and being that “contraception is expressly designed for sexual activity,” Stoppler (2016) sexual acceptability influences a person to use birth control. The more often a person is interested in engaging in the sexual act influences them to use contraceptives. 

The use of contraceptives is associated with a variety of advantages for women, men, children, and the community as a whole. It hinders any chances for unplanned pregnancies and abortions and” past improvements in the use of birth control show the role it can play in reducing unplanned pregnancy and abortion” Kye, Gootman, Ng & Finely (2014). These unplanned pregnancies and abortions currently affect the people that are not using any birth control. It helps to improve maternal and infant health and family wellbeing. It is mainly used because most of the men and women including the young adults are sexually active. Research has shown that when birth control use became known by unmarried women, abortion and unwanted pregnancy reduced as the use of contraceptives increased.

 According to Curtis, Huber & Moss-Knight (2010), the effects of not using birth control are a pregnancy that itself has risks of morbidity and mortality. Unwanted pregnancy leads to abortion which could lead to death and research has shown that “fifty-five million unintended pregnancies in developing countries occur every year to women not using a contraceptive method” Curtis, Huber & Moss-Knight (2010). When mortality risks that are associated with using the different methods of birth control are compared to those that are associated with no use of any method, the ones with no use are the risks associated with pregnancy and abortion. Using no method of birth control has a higher risk of death than using any kind of birth control. 

Before starting birth control, it is important to find out which birth control will be convenient for you and your partner. It is good to consider a method that does not have serious side effects and one that you will use consistently. It is good to consider the method of birth control is effective and how reversible it is in case one would wish to get pregnant. It is also good to consider if the method is affordable and how easy it is to get birth control. Some other methods need you to visit a doctor for a prescription and to get advice on the type that suits you. Because” no method of birth control is perfect” according to Kaunitz (2020), it is important that you balance the merits and demerits of each type of birth control and then choose the type that will be effective and that you will be able to use it correctly.

Conclusion

Birth control is important for men, women, and young adults. The different methods of birth control help a person choose the method that works best for them. Due to the side effects that are as a result of the birth control, it is advisable to visit a physician to get better advice. Birth control helps to prevent unplanned pregnancies and abortion increasing social and economic benefits. It is good to consider the different types of birth controls and choose the one that you will be able to use correctly and consistently.

References

How Covid-19 is affecting the global economy

Introduction

             Covid-19 is a serious pandemic that has caused trauma of financial markets.  Since the outbreak, Covid-19 has affected over 190 countries, and these countries have experienced an economic downturn as a result of the loss of productive workforce, social distancing policies, weak consumer sentiment, among other factors.  It is important to note that before the Covid-19 pandemic, the economy was affected by trade protectionism, economic uncertainties, and falling commodities.  However, these issues are solvable, or they could be solved, but the Covid-19 pandemic has weakened the economy to the extent that the national leaders are unable to create and implement the appropriate policies. The pandemic has affected the global supply chain, the demands for goods and services, and all business sectors. International trade has been affected in that the global economic activities in the industry such as airlines, shopping industry, and others have declined, thereby leading to decreased trade volumes. It is important to note that on top of health effect, the business will encounter unavoidable declines despite the government’s measures to calm the situation. While economic concern in many countries has increased, the Covid-19 pandemic will keep the global economy shattered, and the financial markets should expect more economic instability.

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), Covid-19 has caused a huge economic impact, and it is difficult to predict how long the effects will last. Economists are unable to estimate the effect: they say that the effect will hit the economy hard, yet the full recovery is unknown (Ataguba, 1). However, the nations should remain vigilant and come up with strategies to enter the volatile markets despite the pandemic. Ataguba (1) assert that Africa is not like other developed countries in that countries in Africa experience a heavy burden of poverty.  Even before the occurrence of the Covid-19 pandemic, African countries experience a higher level of poverty due to factors such as poor governance, poor infrastructure, unending conflict, weak health systems, and many more.  Now, due to the Covid-19 pandemic, African countries will suffer greatly. Even though Covid-19 or any other pandemic affects the entire globe or rather it does not have national boundaries, it is important to put concern on the developing countries (Ataguba, 2). This is because, the developing countries seek financial help from the developed countries but since the pandemic has affected all nations, it means that the developing nations will be much affected. For example, the Brookings Institution reported that Covid-19 would affect macroeconomic status in South Africa. The report also asserted that the cost on the microeconomic level could be avoided by investing heavily in the health system.  In addition, actors such as communities, organizations, and the individual should adhere to the rules of staying at home, social distancing, good hygiene, among other basic principles (Ataguba, 3). However, it is important to note that economic costs will not occur due to neglect of the government rules such as social distancing, washing hands, wearing a  mask, and others. The article states that the economic costs will be huge as a result of microeconomic and macroeconomic costs. 

Effect of Covid-19 on micro-economy

  On microeconomic costs, it means that the families, health centers, and schools will be affected.  Families will incur costs associated with diagnosis and treatment, and other copayments.  This is an indication that the Covid-19 pandemic will cause a heavy out-of-pocket burden in African countries.  The question that arises is that where will individuals get the money to make direct payments, yet the source of livelihood is also affected?  For example, South Africa has a few informal workers, and their contribution to the gross domestic product is only 10% (Ataguba, 3).  The health expenditure may not be impacted because the country spends -8% of the GDP, but other establishments will experience productivity losses as a result of business closure and employees' leave.   Still, on the microeconomic level, schools, shops, restaurants, will be affected due to business closure.  It is difficult to  estimate all the  microeconomic costs, but the point is that  the Covid-19 pandemic  have affected  the microeconomic economy and  it will continue  to  affect due to the  uncertainty.  

  Government spends less on health care in some African countries, but the Covid-19 pandemic has added considerable additional costs. This is because, the government wants to budget for Covid-19, but there is no revenue due to a decline in economic activity (Ataguba, 4). Due to the severity of infections, the government is expected to increase its health spending for management and treatment, building infrastructure, providing relief, and many more.  The article states that the Covid-19 pandemic will not only increase the health care spending but it will contribute to something known as 'crowding out'. This means that as the government increases the attention and effort   in public health spending, it will reduce spending on other areas of the market, such as communicable diseases. This means that as the government is spending to curb the Covid-19 disease, people will have poor health services on other illnesses and hence raise the burden of disease (Ataguba, 5). The government will also ignore the effect of self-isolation, such as mental and physical health, which will also cause adverse health outcomes. In general, it means that Covid-19 has already affected the economy, and it will continue to affect in that the government is concentrating on the pandemic hence spending less on other health issues, which in the future will require government spending.

  The effect of Covid-19 on macro-economy

 First, it is important to understand that the pandemic has caused a scarcity of commodities due to poor productivity. The demand for imports and export has decreased, and other global economic activities have been affected. Note that economy plays a significant role in controlling the life expectancy, and mortality rate (Boissay & Rungcharoenkitkul, 2).  The macroeconomic had been affected in that the consumption of goods and services is low. For example, there is a reduction in the oil prices, and due to the threat to the Nigeria economy, Nigeria has devalued its national currency. Also, the activities that raise the GDP growth as such as investments have been affected, and this means that the Covid-19 outbreak had affected the estimated national growth.  Due to the many uncertainties, the pandemic will continue to affect the macroeconomic (Boissay & Rungcharoenkitkul, 2). This is because, the pandemic has reduced the manufacturing activity by 20%, and the reduction will affect the GDP by 6-8%. Another point is that the pandemic has affected the supply and demand. This is contributed by a lack of labor supply and consumption, loss of employee workdays, and low productivity. The supply will reduce GDP by 2.3% as a result of the reduction in the labor force, low return to capital, and low GDP growth, whereas the demand will reduce by 2% (Boissay & Rungcharoenkitkul, 2). Countries such as South Africa, and Anglo rely on export activities, but the failure to participate in trade will affect the foreign financing flows and affect the overall GDP growth. Countries that rely on commodity exports will also experience fiscal deficits. This is because, the government generates 12% revenue in normal circumstances (Boissay & Rungcharoenkitkul, 2).The government is spending more on health care, and this means that there will be a fiscal balance.  The fiscal balance and poor economic activities will raise public debt.

According to Nicola et al. (1), Covid-19 pandemic has caused an economic crisis and recession in the world.  It has affected the primary sector, the secondary sectors, and the tertiary sectors. Sectors such as farming, fishing, and mining are no longer producing goods such as meat and vegetables. On the secondary sector, manufacturing industries are not producing commodities due to self-isolation policies and poor supply chains. On tertiary sectors, sectors that are expected to provide services such as education are closed. Also, public health facilities are closed to prevent the spread of the virus.  Communities and organizations are not working together due to social-isolation policies, and this has led to uncoordinated government responses Nicola et al. (1). The pharmaceutical industry is also facing the challenge of importation. For example, the U.S import pharmaceutical ingredients from India, EU, and China. Limitation in supply and affects the importation, and the industry is experiencing revenue loss. The tourism sector is significantly affected in that urgent measures to prevent travel have been implemented. For example, in 2019, Vietnam received 1.45 million visitors from China, and in January, it received 644,000 visitors Nicola et al. (1). This has affected Vietnam’s tourism sector by causing a $5 billion loss. Philippines will also experience a GDP reduction of 0.3-0.7% due to low travel demand. The hospitality industry has experienced revenue reduction as a result of the Covid-19 crisis. The telecommunications sector had predicted that this year, there would be high value investments on infrastructure and e-commerce sectors. However, the Covid-19 pandemic   has affected the supply of materials and demand for products. Many telecommunications businesses have been closed. In general, the Covid-19 pandemic has caused a sectorial impact on social and economic sectors Nicola et al. (1).The agricultural sector is unable to feed the world, and the impact will continue in that food supply chains must cope up in order to prevent the spread of the disease. However, the government should support agribusiness by providing the workers with the appropriate working conditions.  It is important to note that the pandemic will cause long-term effects since it will take time for the sectors to gain a normal level of functioning.

Conclusion

 The Covid-19 pandemic has posed a significant threat to the world economy. The outbreak has affected both the micro-economy and macro-economy. This means that in the microeconomic, there are scarce resources, the production of goods is low, and supply and demand are affected. On the macroeconomic level, the global economy is experiencing a second recession greater than the Great Depression as a result of declines in GDP growth. Workers in developing countries are mostly affected due to limitations in health and social protection. They have lost their jobs, and the countries are experiencing lower trade and investment.  Sectors, including manufacturing sectors, have decreased the manufacturing activities.  Supply chains are not supplying goods due to restrictions of movement. In general, the pandemic has failed the market system, in terms of financial markets, supply chains, and   micro and macro-economy.  Due to the uncertainty, economists are unable to estimate when the businesses will recover. Experts believe that the pandemic will continue to cause economic disruptions, and the world economy will lose all gains.

Work cited

Nicola, Maria, et al. "The Socio-Economic Implications of the Coronavirus and COVID-19

Pandemic: A Review." International Journal of Surgery (2020).

Ataguba, John E. "COVID-19 Pandemic, a War to be Won: Understanding its Economic

Implications for Africa." Applied Health Economics and Health Policy (2020): 1.

 Boissay F., & Rungcharoenkitkul P. Macroeconomic effects of Covid-19: an early review. Bank

for International Settlements (2020).

Global Pandemics and how they affect the Government

A pandemic is an epidemic of a disease that has spread across a wide area. It is an outbreak of infectious disease and can spread globally and affect many people and causing a lot of deaths. It is the global outbreak of a disease. A pandemic can interfere with the social, economic, and political status of a nation and increase morbidity and mortality.

Quite some global deaths are caused by infectious diseases and epidemics that come from these diseases cannot be predicted. When a new pandemic is in its early stages, no vaccine is usually available. The only way out for the people at the beginning of a new pandemic is taking personal measures like personal hygiene and the use of facemasks. Travel restrictions are placed and people are asked to social distance themselves in case of possible infected people. The public needs to comply with these measures to be able to control the disease because “the willingness of the public to comply with these kinds of measures, as proposed by public health authorities, is crucial to adequately control this type of event” ( Weerd et al 1). The public decides to embrace protective actions depending on how they perceive the risks of the pandemic. They also look at how the government is dealing with the crisis for them to adopt the measures. 

The public adopts the protective measures if they perceive the pandemic to be a high-level risk. If the pandemic has a threat to the health of the public they adopt to the measures. When there is a pandemic outbreak, sources such as general health personnel, the media houses, and the government explain to the public how vulnerable they are to the virus. They also inform the public about how likely it is to contact the virus and its impacts. Getting such information from different sources can influence the public to adhere to the protective measures. Knowing how the public perceives information and to the extent they do is very important. Another crucial aspect is knowing the degree to which they have faith the many sources that make them aware of the threats. This is because” trust is an important factor in risk management because it can affect the public's judgments of risks and benefits, and can therefore indirectly influence the acceptance of recommended measures” (Weerd et al 1). People who trust the government more have a high chance of adopting the measures than the ones who do not. Trust affects the risk perception, risk prevention measures, and support from the government.

During the pandemic crisis, successful risks and crisis communication depends on the rate at which the public trusts and perceives the government. Lack of or no trust in the capability of the government to contain the threat may come from sources that are confusing and cause doubt about the public health cautions. People hear, interpret, and respond to public health messages and information differently and therefore it is important to weigh what is put out to the public. According to Weerd et al (1), public compliance to the preventive measures is associated with the high level of public trust and perception.

Although the infectious disease is a biological occurrence, it is mainly managed by governmental actions through the making of policies, paying attention, and allocating resources. The factors that make the situation difficult are the climate changes and the migration of many people. Pandemics cause global inequality because many of the poor people die in high numbers compare to the other people. The impacts of the pandemics are encountered differently by the poverty-stricken and excluded nationwide and among countries like “during the West-Africa Ebola epidemic, the disease and economic impact fell hardest on the poor communities” (Kavanagh et al 50). Pandemics are infectious diseases that do not have any boundary and this shows why it is important to come up with a strategy that has its stand on international togetherness.

According to Kavanagh et al (53), during a pandemic outbreak, the government experiences an economic shrinking because many businesses are closed at that time. The economic impact experienced globally is the lack of productivity caused by the pandemic. The infectious disease is capable of disrupting national security in a country. Some of the things that lead to an increase in the intensity of the outbreak include urbanization, migration, and globalization. The government could help to reduce the pandemics which kill a lot of people and prevent other possible outbreaks by putting up measures that focus on the long term. This could be made possible by governments partnering with other companies to strengthen the health systems.

Pandemics can cause severe short term and long term economic shocks that are capable of damaging economic growth. In the early stages the efforts of the public health to contain the outbreak or limit the spreads, for example, tracing the contacts, developing quarantines, and isolating the infected people incur costs. This hugely affects the government because when the outbreak grows, other facilities need to be built to be able to manage the infected cases. The health system expenses are increased by the demand for medical supplies, protective equipment for the people, and drugs. Reduced tax revenues may worsen the economic stresses due to an increase in expenditure because “where tax systems are weaker and government fiscal constraints are more severe” (Madhav et al. 1). When there is a slow economic activity and there are curfews and quarantine measures taking place, the government is not able to collect revenue.

A pandemic causes great budget shortages which makes the response of the public health to weaken and also make the government cut off on some other expenditures. They cause indirect damage to economic activity and growth compared to the direct economic impacts. The negative economic impacts are led by the reduced labor force which is caused by people getting sick and dying. It is indirectly caused by the changes in behavior that are caused by fear which “manifests itself through multiple behavioral changes” (Madhav et al. 1). Fear makes some of the governments to close borders to control the entry of people from the affected countries. It also makes companies close, it disrupts transportation and also make the private policymakers to interrupt trade and travel by canceling flights and reducing the shipping services. These impacts cause a decrease in the labor force participation more than how the pandemic impacts morbidity and mortality directly and shrink the local and regional trade.

           All sectors of the economy are affected during a pandemic and this leads to the increase of prices for staple foods. There is also an economic strain for households, the private companies, and the government. Pandemics can lead to remarkable and long-lasting economic damage. They can have social and political outcomes, causing conflict between different states and citizens. This can lead to people being displaced, which could cause social anxiety and some people would face discrimination. According to Madhav et al (1), pandemic outbreaks can cause social groups that are vulnerable to be blamed for the cause of the disease and its outcomes. Pandemics can intensify political tensions and cause trouble mostly in the fragile states where there is the existence of violence and weak institutions.

           During pandemic outbreaks, social distancing measures which works to reduce the closeness of people to reduce the rate at which people get into contact with each other plays a crucial role in the emergency response. It reduces the infection rate in schools “because schools are socially dense environments where students congregate for many hours of the day, schools can fuel community-wide disease transmission” (Uscher-Pines et al. 1). It also slows transmission in the communities and relieves tension in public healthcare that is overburdened during this time. It gives time for the government to come up with prevention or produce a vaccine and distribute it. Social distancing in schools prevents the transmission from schools to the other members of the community. Research shows that during a pandemic outbreak, schools should focus on hygiene, facemasks, and disinfecting school buildings. Out of all the measures, the most effective one is a social distancing that leads to curbing the transmission of the disease. When the pandemic becomes severe, the government orders the closure of schools for some time.

           According to The Global Economic and Financial Impact of an Avian Flu Pandemic (9), the direct impacts that the governments get from pandemic outbreaks are an increased expenditure on health and public safety. It is also affected directly when it implements the ways and instructions for deploying security and polices officers. Distribution of items and essentials that meet the demand for goods and services concerning health. Changes in the payment system cause reduced revenue flow in the national treasuries and the desertion in the government ministries also disrupts the government activities. The indirect impacts that are faced by the government are the likeliness of the affected sectors calling for reimbursements. During a pandemic outbreak, many sectors especially tourism, transport, insurance among others are likely to suffer and experience bankruptcies. Many organizations may be unable to survive the months and weeks of low demand and this may lead to the rise in unemployment. 

The social and economic interference caused by a pandemic could be significant (National Strategy for Pandemic Influenza 1). Absenteeism which could be caused by individual illnesses, sick members of the family, the fear of getting infected or the preventive measures that help to restrict the transmission of the pandemic could highly affect the economy. The operation of infrastructure which includes the maneuvering of goods and services and functioning of institutions such as schools could be affected. Therefore a pandemic causes remarkable consequences in the financial state, governmental security, and the normal operation of the public.

The temporary and permanent impacts are that if the pandemic is temporary, the impacts too will be short-lived because “consumers and investors will start purchasing again, firms will be built up to full capacity, and international trade will rebound “(The Global Economic and Financial Impact of an Avian Flu Pandemic 9). Businesses will begin operating again, organizations will get back to normal and the economy will not be heavily affected. If the impacts caused by the pandemic are permanent, some organizations may face closure, others may have a lot of debts that the government may have the pressure to assume. The government too would have an accumulation of debt that would make it hard to finance the economic position. The lower-income countries are affected by poor medical infrastructures and low levels of preparedness. The countries with weak economic positions offer limited support and help to the people. Countries that depend on external financial markets also face increased borrowing because of the needs that are a result of the pandemic.

When preparing for a pandemic, the main factor includes expenses on items such as food and medical supplies (The Global Economic and Financial Impact of an Avian Flu Pandemic 21). A social safety net should be put in place in readiness for a pandemic because many people including the most vulnerable are affected. This safety net will be able to protect the financial impact of the people that are mostly affected. When the pandemic hits, the most important thing is to know how well to execute the plan and maybe make some changes to fit the particular circumstances. There also will be a need to obtain financing and with the financial markets being adversely affected, the only alternative will be borrowing from the central bank.

 According to The Global Economic and Financial Impact of an Avian Flu Pandemic (21), when the severe part of the pandemic is over, it is important to evaluate the demand and supply shocks in a country. In most countries, the shock is self-correcting while in others, ways to restore economic stability, and financial sustainability may be needed. This may include adjusting the financial policy to prevent a continuous increase in inflation. They may also withdraw from financial incentives especially in the countries that are facing debt sustainability problems.

The most essential thing that is needed to prepare for a pandemic is the allocation of infrastructure which can take a longer time. A strategy that shows the procedure that the federal government will use to plan and be ready for a pandemic “contains three pillars (1) preparedness and communication (2) surveillance and detection and (3) response and containment” (National Strategy for Pandemic Influenza 1). The strategy declares that the government will use all its tools of government power to deal with the pandemic threat. The federal government will join forces with the international partners to try and contain a possible pandemic making every attempt to hold up the development of a pandemic virus. If the efforts by the federal government fail, effective response to a pandemic that is not contained will require all levels of the government and sectors in the society to participate. The execution plan of the strategy states clearly that all the sectors in the society must be ready for a pandemic and will be part of the response. 

The plan acknowledges that the federal government must give clear guidelines and resolution tools to notify the country, local and independent segments of the planning and response actions. The federal agencies must be ready to add and support the state and local efforts where need be. The plan gives an understanding of the pandemic threat and comes up with planning deliberations for all partners. It also suggests that federal agencies should take organized steps to accomplish the objectives of the strategy (National Strategy for Pandemic Influenza 1). Incorporated and joint planning in all the levels of the government and the private sector is important to ensure that the national capabilities and authorities that are available come up with plans and response actions. The objectives of the federal government response are to slow, stop, or control the spread of the pandemic. Another objective is to control the internal spread of a pandemic and reduce disease and death. It’s also intended to sustain infrastructure and reduce the impact on the economy and the overall operation of the society. The more a pandemic has spread to many areas and the burden it brings across the nation for months or more means that the federal government will offer limited support. This is in comparison to the help it brings together in case of natural disasters such as earthquakes.

Conclusion

Global pandemics cause social and economic threats to a nation. Pandemics cause people to live with fear. This makes a lot of people not to go to work, companies are closed and this means that there is little or no revenue. Governments are hugely affected by pandemics because they have to ensure that the people are safe, the pandemic is contained and the infected people get proper medical attention. They have to come up with prevention measures and ensure that the people adhere to them to reduce transmissions of the disease. The government has to come up with a plan to provide food and other essentials during this time. Governments should come up with ways and strategies that will enable a nation to prepare for a pandemic.

Works Cited

Madhav N, Oppenheim B., et al. Pandemics: Risks, Impacts, and Mitigation.  Disease Control

Priorities: Improving Health and Reducing Poverty. 3rd edition. Washington (DC): The

International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank; 2017 Nov 27.

Chapter 17. Accessed 26 Apr. 2020.

National Strategy for Pandemic Influenza: Implementation Plan: Homeland Security council,

2006. Print

The Global Economic and Financial Impact of an Avian Flu Pandemic and the Role of the Imf.

Washington, D.C: International Monetary Fund, 2006. Print.

Van der Weerd W., Timmermans, et al. monitoring the level of government trust, risk perception

and intention of the general public to adopt protective measures during the influenza A

(H1N1) pandemic in the Netherlands. BMC Public Health 11, 575 (2011).

Uscher-Pines, L., Schwartz, H.L. et al. School practices to promote social distancing

in K-12 schools: review of influenza pandemic policies and practices. BMC Public

Health 18, 406 (2018).

                Question 1: Description of the product

                                                            Modernized face masks

            In the modern business world, businesses have encountered huge variations in terms of the needs and preferences of their esteemed customers. The reason for that is because to satisfy the demands of each customer, various factors ought to be taken into consideration.  Some of these factors include the quality of the products being supplied into the market, how affordable they are, the pricing strategies being used, and its ability to be reused, after-sales services provided, and so on.  In the process of understanding and evaluating all these factors, it easier for the management authority of the company to increase its profit margins as a result of making more sales. The same scenario allows the business to enjoy the economies of scale.

            In connection with, considering the evolution of different diseases and viruses, the reason as to why washable and reusable face masks have been recommended is the fact that they have the propensity of enabling users to improve their health status. For instance, the emission of various fumes and its inhalation by human beings is perceived to be reduced as a result of using these masks. Furthermore, due to the fact that it is easy to wash and reuse them, these masks have the proven to enable customers to cut down the expenses that they incur in the process of purchasing new ones (Institute of Medicine (U.S), 20016). 

            The current trend regarding the spread of the COVID-19 virus is also another advantage that arises from the use of these masks. Technically, the reason for recommending the use of these masks is because they are manufactured from activated carbon filters. Using such material to manufacture them not only protects individuals from contracting the deadly COVID-19 virus but also from inhaling dust particles, pollen grains, and smoke from the atmosphere.  After using and rewashing them, the filters still have the ability to filter and trap such particles form the environment.

            Considering rising cases of COVID-19 pandemic, one of the primary objectives of this advertisement entail emancipating the general public about its effectiveness. Ideally, after wearing them, a person can disinfect it using preferred detergents so as to prevent the spread of viruses and poisonous particles from one person to another. Taking into account the differences in shape and size of the users' heads, the masks also has hook and loop straps that can be easily adjusted to fit each one of them. Furthermore, the fabric used to manufacture them can stretch once they are worn on the face. Such a technique makes them be worn comfortably without straining. Another characteristic of these gadgets is that they can be used for long hours because of the easiness to loosen or tighten them using the hooks and loops. 

            In accordance with that, the materials used to make these gadgets are relatively thick. This is advantageous because it prevents them from wear and tear in the process of washing them using disinfectants or wearing them. Therefore, in the process of conducting better market research and employing efficient selling strategies, it will be easier to increase sales as a result of reaching the target groups. Because of the protective measures formulated by the ministry of health, it is believed that both the young and old enjoy the benefits that arise from using such masks (Institute of Medicine (U.S), 2006). With the spread of diseases and viruses, the supply of these masks will be targeting both international and domestic markets.

            Additionally, the use of non-competitive and modern technology in marketing and selling of these products, the management authority of the company will have the ability to meet customer demands, especially the continued spread of viruses. With such an approach, the general public will also be encouraged on how to use them health-wise. That will take into account educating them on the importance of avoiding touching their nose or mouth so as to better protect themselves from viruses, flue, poisonous particles, and so on.

Question 2: Perspectives of the product manager with regard to its innovative demand

            As one of the individuals managing the manufacture and distribution of these products, a demand curve will be utilized in determining whether the whole venture will be profitable or not. With such an approach, generating a demand equation will be valuable in making the management team to decide the most efficient pricing strategies to use. Whether in the short-run or long-run, the variations that will be obtained in terms of the sales made in local or international markets will validate its profitability. According to the research conducted regarding the supply of masks into the market, it has been realized that the majority of producers do concentrate in the supply of generic masks.

             Therefore, in the process of determining the profitability of these gadgets, the intercept (denoted as "a") and the slope/gradient (denoted as "b") will be determined so as to drive the equation of the demand curve.  Computing "b" (the slope of the graph) will assist the management authority to understand the changes that might occur in the process of marketing, distributing, and selling these products. Such changes are perceived to be induced by various factors, particularly price changes (Schindler, 2012). From these perspectives, the price at which the organization will be selling a single unit of the products will be ranging from $25 to $28. Variations in the price of each unit of the products will be based on the market targeted, income levels of customers, how often they will be making purchases, individual choices and preferences, and so on.

            When the price of commodity increases or decreases, the demand for it also decreases until an equilibrium price is maintained. Because of that, my recommendation is that a single unit of the product should be sold at $100 to make it profitable. From the demand curve equation computed, a shift in the demand curve will have to be influenced by the changes in the price of such a commodity. What this suggests is the fact that by plugging the value of "b", which in this case is (-100), an exact value of each one of them will be obtained. Regardless of the market being served, the value obtained will aid in determining the amount demanded by potential customers.

             Ideally, it is possible to realize that the price of each unit of the product can be equivalent to zero. Despite that, in the process of plugging in "a" values, it is found out that the value will rise to 10,000. This estimate is important because it will make the management team to understand the mechanisms to be used to increase prices and sales to expand the business.  On the other hand, by using modern technology, businesses continue to realize more returns and also have a competitive advantage in their industry.  Since price changes have both a positive and negative impact on the number of goods demanded by customers, using a perfect demand equation resolves such uncertainties (Rao, 2009). Therefore, the demand equation for the business will be

                                                Quantity demanded (Q) = 100a-200b

Question 3A:  Price and quantity determination

Table I

            Considering the above data, changes in price ultimately result in a shift in demand. This is t imply that when the price of the product increases, demand decreases too. Such changes are also brought about by other forces of demand in the market. Despite that, considering the continuous rise in the rate of contracting viruses, especially COVID-19, variations in price and demand will be relatively at par.  All that is required is a timely supply of these products to the targeted market (Piros & Pinto, 2013).

Demand equation

            Using the demand equation formulated above, the quality and the price to be charged for a single unit will induce a huge impact on its demand. Therefore, using our earlier demand equation, we can deduce that

                        Quantity demanded (Q) = a +bp

                                    Where pb is the purchasing price per single unit

            Thus, b (slope) = change in quantity demanded/change in price

                                    = (10,000 -9,400)/ (9-3)

                                        = 100

Computing the value of a, = 100(0) +10,000

                                                = 10,000

                                        This proves that the demand equation that the company will use will be

                                                            Q =10,000-100p

The value of p (price) will be =

                                                = $100

(Graham, 2013)

3B: Point elasticity of demand

Table II

            From the table II above,

                                         n= (10/1000) x (-10)

                                        n = -10   (Kucuk, 2017)

3C: Price-quantity determination

                                        = (% change in q) / (% change in p)

                                        = % change

                                        Therefore, from the demand equation q= 1,000 and p= $ 100

            From the values obtained above, it can be seen that each unit of the product can be sold at an average price of $ 30. Consequently, at equilibrium price, the quantity demanded will be equal to the price charged in the market (Kapil, 2014).

3D: Revenue equation

            At equilibrium price, revenue (R) will be obtained as

                                                R = QP

                                                = 100q – (10/10000q) q

                                                = q (100-0.001q)

3E: Marginal revenue (MR) equation

                                        MR = change in price ( ) / change quantity demanded ( )

                                                = (100-0.001q)

(Piros & Pinto, 2013)

Question 4 A: Demand curve

                                     Y-axis

                                    80

                        70

                        60                D2                                         S

                        50         D1

 Price (P)         40                                                      (p2, q2)

                        30

                        20                               (p1, q1)                        

                        10

X-axis

                                             1,500    3,000   4,500    6,000    7,500    9,000   10,500   12,000

                          Quantity (Q)

    Where D = demand and S= supply

Question 4 B: Revenue curve

                                      Y-axis

                                    80

                        70

                        60                                                             S

                        50        

 Price (P)         40                                                      (p2, q2)

                        30

                        20                               (p1, q1)                        

                        10                                                     MR                 AR

X-axis

                                             1,500    3,000   4,500    6,000    7,500    9,000   10,500   12,000

                          Quantity (Q)

Where AR =average revenue and MR = marginal revenue

Question 5: Analysis and conclusion

    According to the computation conducted above, it can be deduced that for the product of the company to be more profitable, it will be the duty of the management authority to look for efficient product marketing or launching strategies. The data collected, graphs drawn, and equations derived are the best approach to determine how competitive the products will be in the market. Furthermore, to have the propensity of increasing sales, the company needs to ensure that its production levels have been maximized.

    The reason for that timely supply of the products into the market will enable the management authority to respond quickly to customer demands (Schotter, 2009). A change realized in the demand and revenue curve also gives a clear indication of how price and demand are impacted by various forces of demand and supply. This is what assists in determining whether demand or supply will be inelastic or elastic.

References

Graham, R. C. (2013). Managerial economics for dummies. Hoboken, N.J: Wiley.

Institute of Medicine (U.S). (2006). Reusability of facemasks during an influenza pandemic: Facing the flu. Washington, D.C: National Academies Press.

Kapil, P. (2014). Elasticity of Demand - Class XII: by Kapil Pingolia. Kapil Pingolia Press

Küçük, S. U. (2017). Visualizing marketing: From abstract to intuitive. Cham : Palgrave Macmillan

Piros, C. D., & Pinto, J. E. (2013). Economics for investment decision makers: Micro, macro, and international economics. Hoboken, N.J. : Wiley

Piros, C. D., & Pinto, J. E. (2013). Economics for investment decision makers: Micro, macro, and international economics. Hoboken, N.J. : Wiley Press

Rao, V. R. (2009). Handbook of pricing research in marketing. Cheltenham, Glos, U.K. ; Northampton, Mass. : Edward Elgar

Schindler, R. (2012). Pricing strategies: A marketing approach. Thousand Oaks, Calif: Sage Publications, Inc.

Schotter, A. (2009). Microeconomics: A modern approach. Mason, Ohio: South-Western Cengage Learning.

Speech-Generating Devices for Adults with Aphasia

            Aphasia is the medical term used to refer to a communication disorder that occurs as a result of injury or damage to the part of the brain that processes language. The medical condition is common in the elderly, especially those with cases of a stroke. Patients diagnosed with aphasia find it difficult to comprehend and use words. Aphasia however does not affect the patient’s intelligence, but rather how they share the knowledge they possess. Often times, people with the condition have a hard time talking because they are unable to find the right words to express what they are thinking. They also find it difficult to follow conversations and even reading and writing.

            Aphasia is divided into different types with each category having effects that range from mild to severe. Patients who have mild aphasia find it easier to communicate but only simple conversations as complex words or discussion may be too much to comprehend. Those with severe aphasia on the other hand are unable to communicate and while they may speak a few words, they are unable to engage in a conversation in any way.

            The advancement in technology has led to the development of communication devices, systems and tools that can be used to support and even replace speech through what is known as augmentative and alternative communication (AAC). The tools assist people with difficulty in communicating and speech. Aphasia patients however require more than picture boards and talking boxes because. ACC was recently described as “a set of procedures and processes by which an individual’s communication skills can be maximized for functional and effective communication” by ASHA. Its implications and strategies are however not applicable to everyone, especially in cases where patients have severe aphasia. Furthermore, clinically based systems have been developed to describe the communication behaviour of individuals diagnosed with aphasia such that SLPs have a better understanding of what AAC strategies are likely to yield the best result in treatment intervention.

Various AAC device configurations are currently being used but none has managed to give enough or significant communication to everyone diagnosed with communication disabilities and impairments. The SLP are responsible for conducting evaluations to determine the key components of the type of technology needed to meet a specific user’s needs. The follow-up processes and systematic evaluationssystematic and objective evaluation acts as safeguards that ensure that devices are not abandoned or underutilized. The SLPs reference rely on very specific clinical indicators that are distinct and useful in helping to match the categories to an individual’s profile in accordance with their cognitive, physical and motor skills.

AAC-based intervention plays a significant role as they assist people with serious cases of aphasia to improve skills and evolve from depending on their partners to depending on themselves.  Although there is no way to ensure that the patients will evolve to become independent communicators, the strategies are very helpful in promoting then likelihood of positive occurrences in the development process. The patients will however still need support that is personalized and designed in such a way that it will help the patients to evolve and improve as they adapt to their condition. Giving the ACC tool to patients however is just the beginning of the process. The patients will require training and assistance on how to use the tool and also on how to develop a new vocabulary. Patients are able to express themselves, but they cannot do so because of Aphasia. The tool makes it easier to evolve from having a desire to communicate to actually expressing oneself. Demonstrations will be helpful in helping the patients to visualize how tools can be used to develop various ideas, and to teach the patient that it is acceptable to communicate in that specific way. The visuals about the proper way to use the system is helpful to both clients diagnosed with aphasia and also their caregivers and family members. Family members also need help in finding a better way to communicate with patients with aphasia. The difficulty in finding a proper image or way to communicate the message further makes it harder for the patient who has to understand. AAC can therefore ease the communication and help the messenger be better at communicating.

            Patients can be trained to access portions of messages stored in low-tech, picture or board format and this can greatly improve their communication skills. Patients can also be trained to express themselves using short messages such as assisting for help with something. A simple phrase like “could you help me with that?” can act as the first stage to train the clients how to express themselves. Patients can also be helped using catch phrases that are easy to remember. A statement like “Please give me a minute to answer, I have aphasia” can be very helpful as it acts as the point of origin for the patient. Since the medical condition makes it difficult for the patient to formulate words or sentences, having a ready response bring composure and the [patient can use it as a basis of reference.

The tool is helpful for family members and caregivers as well. Those responsible for looking after the patient can also learn the best approaches to use in order to make the communication process more effective. The individuals trying to engage with the patient with aphasia could use short sentences that are also direct to the point. Using select words as part of the vocabulary helps to reinstate them as ideal for communication and in so doing, encourage the patient to incorporate them during communication.

Other than direct speech, there are other approaches that can be used to help improve communication with patients diagnosed with aphasia. Family members and friends can come together to form communication groups aimed at helping the patient. For patients having a difficulty in expressing themselves, the exposure from a communication group can act as a basis of reference for the patient. Engaging with different people, even through the act of simply observing can help trigger memory and also help formulate a pattern that the patient can recognize and use to break the barrier preventing him from formulating a sentence.

Role playing on the other hand can help the patient put into practice what has been learnt. Other than encouraging communication, there is need to create a platform where the patient can actually practice what is sought by the AAC. Role playing can be an effective tool as it creates made up scenarios that imitate real life occurrences. Patients can be trained on how to go about basic communications such as asking for directions, exchanging greetings, buying goods and simple pleasantries like hello. The real-life scenario created through role play has an advantage in that it is direct to the point and actually pushes the patient to communicate. Instead of just learning how to communicate, the patient is given a chance to communicate and gain experience on how to go about handling such occurrences in the real world.

The relationship between the caregiver and the patient with Aphasia greatly affects the success of the ACC intervention systems used. In treatments that employ the use of SDG, the relationship between the caregiver and the patient helps in selecting the most ideal image or graphical symbol used to trigger the patient’s memory. For its to be successful, the caregiver must possess a basic understanding of the patient on a personal level so as to derive the most significant symbol. The is therefore a need for cooperation between the patient, family and friends, caregivers and any individual involved in the treatment process.

The chances for success are therefore determined by the approach taken by the caregiver when introducing the treatment method to the patient. When introducing new topics, the clinician can start by finding ways to get along and communicate with the patient’s family, friends and caregivers. This helps to collect information on the state of the patient and also determine the treatment approach to take by developing a graphic symbol to use. After this, the clinician can develop an SDG that will be used to store the message that is being communicated. The SDG could be tagged with a favourite catch phrase or slogan that resonates well with the patient. Those assisting with the communication are informed about the SDG and what message it communicates. Using the image therefore acts as a buffer and further encourages the patient to communicate.

The cognitive demands used should be minimal because the person with aphasia does not need to look through complex arrays when looking for symbols. The clinician should always take note that the level of understanding for the patient is hindered by the condition. Information must therefore be structured using phrases that re short, easy to remember and are direct to the point.  When dealing with clients who have difficulty answering yes/no questions, tagged questions can be used.  The approach would be to pose a yes/no question and then add a tag at the end. An example would be, “Do you have children, yes, or no?” The reason behind this strategy is how the clinician implement the tag “yes or no?”. effectiveness can be enhanced if the clinician is to speak slowly and augment their speech with gestures like head nod for yes and shaking it for no. the important thing about the approach is that it encourages participation and encourages the patient to communicate.

Augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) devices have added advantages in that they are readily available and therefore user friendly and user friendly. The devices are customized to meet the needs of each patient regardless of their background. Patients have a huge variety to choose from with three being the most common. The first category is the single which represents pictures and are considered to be the simplest of the devices. While they may require literacy, the patient only needs to understand the pictures and this can easily be taught. The alphabet-based systems fall into the second category and they are slightly more advanced and require some form of literacy.  The last category is the semantic compaction and they involve short series and therefore require training.

Successful implementation of AAC requires communication partner instruction. When establishing evidence-based practice (EBP), implementation features are crucial, and this is for both classroom staff and families at home. How communication is taught is therefore an important factor on how well EBP is provided. It is important to not that patients diagnosed with aphasia will require a different approach when teaching compared to their caregivers. The same systems cannot be used for the patient and the family members because the patient requires more attention. Finding a balance ensures that family members are well updated on how to help the patient manage their condition without disrupting any progress made with the caregiver.  

Various findings from previous research reveal that use of multiple training elements has a high likelihood of resulting in optimal learner outcomes.  It is also correct to assume that strategy description, strategy demonstration, verbal practice and controlled practice can be used. Coaching is however overlooked as trainers rely on research that proposes that the use of targeted strategies in the natural environment can increase to about ninety-five percent. Coaching here involves entering the patient’s natural environment like their home and observing the caregiver and other members of the family and then compiling a report of the findings. It is a collaborative process that requires the researcher to develop a partnership with the subject under study.

The method is often provided to clients that require help in developing skills in accessing the communication equipment. It also helps the patients to learn the vocabulary used and trains them on how to use their communication system in the critical care environment. Family members and caregivers are taught about the operational care requirements, how to be supportive and also what is needed in order to overcome any barriers that may come in between communication between the individual and the Aphasia patient. The AAC team on the other hand monitors and reviews the use of the communication equipment. The control allows the AAC to make changes to the system with reference to feedback collected from the patient or members of the family and the caregivers.  Family members also help the patient to improve vocabulary content through the exchange of communication.

Clients categorized as communication vulnerable are provided with a voice that assists them to communicate with their family, friends, and members of the healthcare team. AAC in the ICU department for example has helped patients to track and report their symptoms, seek information and other activities that aid in their care. By improving the quality of stay for instance, patients that require intensive care are safer and have a higher chance of making positive progress. Patients also get to communicate with their family members on sensitive issues such as how they wish to spend their last days and even what should be done after passing. In addition, professionals in the healthcare industry are lessened the burden of bearing the stress of not being able to communicate with a patient under one’s care. It is therefore a tool that improves the level of medical care offered and also the quality of care while one is being treated.

            The silver lining is that patients diagnosed with aphasia have a chance to improve regardless of whether the diagnosis occurred after a few months or years. Since the condition affects the patient’s ability to communicate, the goal is just to provide a tool rather than teach the individual how to communicate. The patients already know how to communicate, the tools just help them to bypass the restrictions brought about by the condition. Since the condition does not prevent the patient from learning how to communicate, speech has been discovered to be faster and more efficient as a communication tool. In addition, research has demonstrated that speech tends to be successful when supported with an ACC system. In cases where the is difficulty in clarity, then ACC can be used to add clarity and give the patient a more positive experience.

About 2 million people in the United States and 1% of the British population rely on digital adaptive alternative communication methods, voice communication output devices and speech generating devices. The figure is made up of People with ALS, Parkinson’s disease, Brain stem stroke, traumatic brain injury and disabilities that make communication difficult or impossible without the speech generating devices. The devices are of great importance as they help patients with limited speech to express themselves successfully by relying on whatever means are available to them.  Through AAC, people with person with limited speech can expand their vocabulary and find it easier to communicate far more than they were able to without ACC.