Hinduism, Lord Shiva

In Hinduism, the triumvirate comprises three gods responsible for humankind's existence, their creation, and the destruction of their ideal world. The role is given and controlled by different gods where they all have the role they play in the existence of humankind or their destruction. Hindus believe in the presence of three gods that is Brahma, Vishnu, and shiva. Shiva is the god responsible for the destruction of the universe and the recreation of the same in a better making than the previous one bringing about change that is beneficial to humankind (Bhandari, Kaur, & Grover, 2018). Due to his unpredictable nature and moods, shiva is considered ass an angry god where he is vital in destroying the community's evils. The connection of lord shiva to destruction makes him the most worshiped god as people fear the aspect of destruction. Still, he is considered a reproductive god as he offers recreation after destruction.

The myth of shiva is based on the creation of time where nothing exists except the spirit where he created himself from the words let me become. After his existence, the next thing he made was the fire to warm himself, which is regarded as the source of light. Due to his core role in the creation, he’s considered the creator and all-knowing, and from his existence comes the aspect of life where he liberates it in time, offering eternal freedom to his creation. The different people give lord shiva other names and faces, making him considered Vedas, meaning the world's source of life as seen in all his creation. In this case, a god responsible for creating the world so that the other gods can create the things in it makes Brahma the god of creations in the world. Shiva is a God who is considered male or female but is represented according to the individual belief about his nature as he regarded taking different forms.

The symbols on the statue of lord shiva include the moon light's presence indicating that lord shiva has control over the aspect of time and that his existence is beyond time, thus eternal. This aspect is considered essential as he’s responsible for controlling nature and his role of destruction and recreation. The body smeared element indicates that his presence is far beyond the material things suggesting the philosophy of life and death in the Hindus community. Everything is converted to as at the end of time (Somasundaram, & Murthy, 2017). The Ganga river on his forehead represents a sacred river where the Hindus believe that the water flows out of the river to the humans, thus considered pure, giving shiva the aspect of purity and peace. The third eye indicates the element of wisdom associated buy lord shiva and his insight. In contrast, the cobra snake on his neck suggests his power over the most feared and dangerous creature. The aspect of the trident has three finger-like features representing the three gods of the Hindus.

Lord Shiva is also known as the lord of dance, where dances are considered one of the primary forms of art in India as it is viewed as a way of bringing balance in life. Due to his association with destruction, he’s is mainly associated with the Tandav dance, which in India is considered the dance of death (Mandal, et al. 2020). The song is related to a legend about Shivas wife sati death after they had married against her father's will; she jumped in the sacred fire, causing shiva to sing the song Tandav, which was to bring the end of the world before its time. He was soothed and calmed down by the sprinkling of her ash over him by the other gods to avoid the wrath of shiva. Shiva is viewed by the Hindus as the example of marital life after the reborn of Sati as Parvati and an indication that all that has been destroyed will be recreated.

References

Bhandari, H., Kaur, P., & Grover, A. R. An Explorative Study of Hindu Goddess Sites in Himachal Pradesh.

Mandal, U., Panda, M., Routray, S., Parida, S., & Mahalik, G. Significance of Utilizing Plant Resource in Maha Shivratri For The Adoration of Lord Shiva, Odisha, India.

Somasundaram, O., & Murthy, T. (2017). Siva-The mad lord: A Puranic perspective. Indian journal of psychiatry, 59(1), 119.

Jewish Vegetarianism

Introduction

The decision to adopt a vegetarian diet is greatly influenced by the desire to protect animal life. There is the common belief that eating meat contributes to the cruel treatment of animals kept for slaughter and also in an attempt to prevent unnecessary killing of animals even for food. Although there are various constructs in society that encourage people to adopt a vegan diet, religion also plays a major role in influencing the type of food that people consume. Take the case of Jews as an example. Members devout to the religion borrow teachings from the bible and interpretations by spiritual leaders rely on the religious teachings and traditions to determine what actions are acceptable and which ones to avoid. Despite the existence of various stereotypes and beliefs that discourage consumption of meat, Jewish vegans adopt a vegan diet with respect to their religious customs and traditions, and also due to the different bible verses that discourage killing of animals for food.

            Jewish vegans have made the choice to abstain from consuming animal products due to various factors. There is the common belief that going vegan helps to protect the environment and also preserve the environment. The idea is based on the assumption that breeding and slaughtering animals for the purpose of food creates an environment where the animals are mistreated before they are presented as food (Labendz & Yanklowitz, 2019, p.17). Reports of animal cruelty in slaughter houses have become common as people have grown accustomed to seeing animals as food and not living things. For Jews who opt to adopt a vegetarian diet, the decision to abstain from meat products is done in an attempt to reduce the demand for such products. Since the demand created determines the number of animals slaughtered, Jewish vegans believe that abstaining from consuming animal products will bring down the demand and in so doing, save a significant number of animals from being killed for food. In addition, adopting a vegan diet is also done to set an example for other people, Jews and non-Jews alike by showing how other types of food can be used as substitutes for meat. The goal is therefore to reduce the demand for animal products by creating an environment where people rely on a vegan diet rather than killing animals for food.

            The teachings from the Jewish bible trace the origin of Jews as having descended from the Israelites who settled in Canaan and are said to be the descendant of Jacob. The Israelites who settled in Canaan were greatly influenced by the laws of Moses and other teachings that were introduced as they made the journey from Egypt to Canaan. Although there were different laws and restrictions on what the Israelites could do, the scriptures they read from gave them great insight concerning what food to consume and why to avoid unnecessary killing of animals. In the book of Genesis for example, human beings were forbidden from killing animals for food because God had provided plant life to sustain both human beings and animals. “…and to every beast of the earth, and to every fowl of the air, and to everything that creepeth upon the earth, wherein there is a living soul, [I have given] every green herb for food” (Gen. 1:30). Jewish vegans rely on such teachings and quotes from their religious scriptures to determine what food is suitable for consumption. Jewish vegans therefore believe that eating animals for food is a form of disobedience as it goes against God's wishes. Jewish vegans are therefore more inclined to adopt a vegan diet as it is a way of fulfilling God's command and also because it ensures that they abide to the lessons taught through their customs and traditions.

            The revelation by God that animals and human beings were originally intended to consume plans is often interpreted to mean that human beings and other living things were on a similar plane of importance and their life had similar value. Like human beings, animals kept for food are believed to have a soul and this makes them superior to plants and vegetables but not on the same level as human beings (Labendz & Yanklowitz, 2019, p.8). Since human beings are more advanced, they have more understanding and are able to interpret scriptures. For Jewish vegans, the notion that animals are living things similar to humans combined with scriptures that discourage killing of animals for food is enough to encourage one to adopt a vegan diet. According to Rabbi Joseph Albo, a Jewish philosopher, killing of animals, even for food, exposes the individual to forms of violence that inflict pain and death to animals and forces people to engage in acts of shedding innocent blood (The Daily Torch, 2020, p.1). The decision to adopt a vegan diet is therefore influenced by the desire to abstain from forms of violence or killing especially because Jewish customs and traditions strongly discourage murder.

            The decision to adopt a vegan diet also helps Jews to preserve God's creating and retain their purity. The restriction discouraging people from killing animals for food is present in the story of creation. The teachings suggest that shortly after creation, God was satisfied with the world as it was and saw no need to change anything. The religious book mentions that God looked at his creation and “behold, it was good” (Gen 1:31). After God was done creating all living and non-living things, he was satisfied with his creation and rested on the 7^th day. This meant that all His plans had been acted upon and creation was as He desired. Since the restriction guiding human beings and other living things to only rely on plants for food was issued during the time of creation, it then stands to reason that going against any directive or law given is a form of rebellion against God and his plan for a perfect world.

            Therefore, Jews that adopt a vegan diet strongly believe that the only way to live life according to Gods wishes is by following his teachings and also sustaining creation as God intended it. The statement that God looked at everything he created and was pleased encompasses all of his creation as well as the plans he had to ensure that they peacefully coexisted. When God attested that his creation was indeed good, it was during a time where human beings and animals aboded to the restrictions that forbade them from eating animals. Killing animals for food is therefore seen as a way of undoing the good that God had created, which can also be said to be a deviation from God's teachings and scriptures (Gellman & Hartman, 2003, p.1). The decision to adopt a vegan diet is therefore regarded as a way to bring back the balance that was lost when human beings defied God's plan for the world and started killing animals for food.

            Despite the various directives, laws and scripture encouraging Jews to adopt a vegetarian diet, the existence of contrasting laws and customs that allow killing of animals for food make it difficult to define the Jewish approach to vegetarianism. Among the various laws that offers contrasting opinions over what food is suitable for Jews is the laws of Kashrut. The Kashrut comprises of a set of dietary laws that determines what types of food Jews can consume and also how the food should be prepared in accordance with the Jewish laws (Rosenblam, 2016, p.8). If followed to the letter, the laws permitted consumption of foods that may have been forbidden or discouraged by Jewish customs and traditions as well as the scriptures they followed. The laws are however numerous and rather complex to interpret which could explain why Jews choose to adopt a vegetarian diet instead of risking breaking the Jewish laws when attempting to prepare food under the laws of Kashrut.

            The Kashrut allows for consumption of specific types of animals that were deemed Kosher or fit for consumption as described in Torah. Animals that were considered fit for consumption are “among the animals, whatever divides the hoof, having cloven hooves and chewing the cud, that you may eat” (Leviticus 11:3). The provision allowed Jews to consume animals like goats because they chew cud and have split hooves. It however alienated consumption of animals like pigs because, despite having split hooves, pigs do not chew cud and therefore fails to meet the criteria for animals that Jews can eat. The scripture from the bible can be used as a way to justify why some Jews may have varying opinions about vegetarianism. The features used to differentiate animals that can be eaten from the unclean ones however fails to indicate why some animals were selected for consumption and others were not. Although the scripture does allow killing of specific animals for food, it does not degrade the overall ideology where animals are God's creation and should not be mistreated or killed for food (Yanklowitz, 2019, p.12). although some scriptures allow Jews to eat meat, the Jewish approach to vegetarianism is influenced by different factors that present all animals as deserving the same protection and care offered to human beings.

            The Jewish approach to vegetarianism is greatly influenced by the Jews' desire to emulate God and follow in his teachings. The conditions allowing killing and eating specific animals is often regarded as a temporary situation where God allowed the killing of animals, but only in specific conditions. Killing and eating animals was therefore reserved for specific encounters or events similar to how some animals were deemed necessary for eating while others were not (Cohen, 2015, p.33). The provision even goes on to describe some animals as unclean solely on the basis of the criteria distinguishing animals fit for consumption from those that were not. “to distinguish between the unclean and the clean, and between the animal that may be eaten, and the animal that may not be eaten” (Leviticus 11: 47). Despite having being pleased with His creation and asserting that everything was ‘good', the decision to allow humans to deviate from the original commandment and start killing some animals for food meant that the ‘good' that God had established was becoming undone. However, since the unclean nature is as a result of classifying animals in accordance with whether they were fit for eating or not, Jewish vegetarians may opt to adopt a vegetarian diet in order to retain the clean nature of all animals. Restricting food to only plans ensures that all animals are equal and therefore does away with the classification of clean or unclean. The Jewish approach to vegetarianism is therefore influenced by the desire to retain the ‘good' that God created in his original idea of creation.

            Another example of how Jewish approach to vegetarianism preserves the ‘good' that God created is seen in the biblical story of Noah. After the flood, God gave Noah and his family permission to kill and eat animals as a source of food. However, the provision also meant that the relationship that God had established between human beings and animals would be altered. “And the fear of you and the dread of you shall be upon every beast of the earth, and upon every fowl of the air, and upon all wherewith the ground teemeth, and upon all the fish of the sea: into your hand are they delivered” (Gen. 9:2). The scripture suggests that, before God gave Noah permission to eat animals, there existed a harmonious relationship between man and animals. When Noah and his family were allowed to eat the animals however, animals evolved and started dreading human beings like they were aware of the shift in power and dominance. The desire to eat meat therefore resulted in the destruction of the harmony that existed between animals and man, and further destroyed the original idea that god had for his creation.

            The decision to allow human beings to eat specific animals was mainly as a control measure rather than fulfilment of God's plan. The decision was made after God saw “how corrupt the earth was, for all flesh had corrupted its ways on earth” (Genesis 9:4). Human beings had grown accustomed to breaking God's commandments and gravely mistreated the animals that were kept for food. giving permission to eat some animals was therefore as a way to regulate what animals could be eaten as well as introducing practices that reduced mistreatment of animals kept for food. "Only flesh with the life thereof, which is the blood thereof, shall ye not eat" (Gen. 9:4). Human beings were required to ensure that the animals were actually dead and that blood no longer flowed as a way to ensure that animals did not suffer before being presented as food. since the animal had to be drained of all blood before being prepared as food, preparation took longer as the blood was removed by salting and drying in the sun (Schwartz, 2016, p.1). the new procedures meant that fewer animals could be slaughtered and therefore reduced the frequency in which animals were killed. The Jewish approach to vegetarianism is therefore done to further reduce the frequency in which animals are killed for food and thus acts as a way of protecting God's creation.

            Most of the scriptures and medieval Hebrew sources present the provision to eat meat as a control measure or a form of test for human beings. When the Israelites were in the wilderness for example, God used Manna as a tool to teach the children of Israel that He was the provider and that too much of something could cause more harm than they thought. The manner fell from heaven as a sign that it was God providing for the children while in the wilderness (Hoffmeier, 2005, p.23). As a test of control and trust in God, every person was required to only pick one omer, which was a term used to measure the quantity of manner. However, some people exceeded the one omer ration as they became greedy. "They gathered out an omer, and he that gathered much had nothing over, and he that gathered little had no lack; everyone according to his eating had they gathered" (Exodus 16:18). Despite this however, each individual ate to their satisfaction, proof that despite collecting different portions of manna, every individual got satisfied, an indication that those that consumed more were wasteful as they took more than was needed. The lessons learnt can be interpreted by Jews to mean that vegetables can offer the same nutrition as animals.

When God directed human beings to eat plants, he was aware that the food would be sufficient even with the exclusion of animals as a source of food. Human beings have however proven greedy over time and this was the case with the Israelites. God provided enough manner on Friday to ensure that the Israelites could rest on the sabbath day. Despite the manner offering enough sustenance, the Israelites further complained that the food they ate while in captivity was better than the manner because it had meat. This greatly angered God and He presented them with quail as meat for them to consume. While this could be interpreted to mean that God allowed men to eat quails, the repercussions that followed only show that the quails were also a test. “But while the meat was still between their teeth and therefore could be consumed, the anger of the lord burned against the people, and he struck them with a severe plague” (Numbers 11:33). The plague is an indication that despite God providing the quails, the act of consuming the meat was too displeasing and this resulted to the plague. Killing animals for food is presented as an act engaged out of necessity, with specific conditions, and is likely to anger God. Jews therefore opt to adopt a vegetarian diet as a way to abide to God's commandments and also protect themselves from his wrath.

Conclusion

            The Jewish approach to vegetarianism is greatly influenced by the scriptures, laws and traditions that govern how devout Jews lead their lives. The different interpretations of laws and scripture have created an environment where Jews and other people disagree on what impact the scriptures and other medieval Hebrew sources intended the Jews to consume. Despite these contradictions however, majority of the scriptures and religious text suggest that human beings were granted superiority over animals and can therefore discern for themselves whether to eat meat or not. When God gave human beings dominion over animals, he did not intend for humans to exceed their power or misuse it. Human beings were expected to look after animals and take care of them the same way God watches over human beings. Despite having all the power, God has given human beings free will and rarely intervenes in their daily lives. Human beings were expected to follow the same example and allow animals to live in peace without being mistreated or killed for food. The Jewish approach to vegetarianism is therefore based on the human desire to be god-like, follow his teachings and maintain the general ‘good' that god saw when he was done creating.

References

Cohen P, (2015) Ä practical guide to the laws of Kashrut” New Milford, CT: Maggid        Books

Gellman M and Hartman T, (2003) “Keeping Koser, a sign of respect for God” Chicago   Tribune, retrievedhttps://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-xpm-2003-05-22-0305220017-story,amp.htmlTribune

Gross S, Myers E, and Rosenblum J, (2019) “Feasting and fasting: The history and ethics             of Jewish foods” New York University Press

Hoffmeier K, (2005) Äncient Israel in Sinai: The evidence for the authenticity of the         wilderness tradition” Oxford University Press, print.

Labendz and Yanklowitz S, (2019) “Jewish veganism and vegetarianism: Studies and       new directions” Albany: State of New York Press

Rosenblum J, (2016) “The Jewish dietary laws in the ancient world” Cambridge    University Press

Schwartz R, (2019) “Jewish dietary laws (Kashrut): Rabbinic teachings on             vegetarianism” Jewish Virtual Library, retrieved from, https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/rabbinic-teachings-on-vegetarianism

The Daily Torch, (2020) “Vegetarianism and Judaism, do they mix?” retrieved from, https://www.torchweb.org/torah_detail.php?id=437

Yanklowitz S, (2019) “Kashrut and Jewish food ethics” Boston: Academic Studies Press

 The Golden Ass by Apuleius: Magic and Rituals Theme

This theology paper is a review of an article that was authored by Apuleius (2^nd century CE). The title of the book was “The Golden Ass,” a work referred to as Metamorphoses a young man who was changed by magic into an ass. The author of this article was named Lucius Apuleius who was born some period around c.124 CE and believed to have died around 170 CE. He was educated at Carthage and Athens and was a traveler who visited various places, especially in the Mediterranean region gain interest in that times religious initiation rites, one of them being the ceremonies that were associated with the worship of the Egyptian goddess Isis. In Rome he taught rhetoric, then later returned to Africa where he married Aemilia Pudentilla, a rich widow, whom he had practiced some magic in order to win her affection. In his book The Golden Ass it is believed that he used materials from the Metamorphoses by Lucius Parte, as cited as some sources with similar themes to those present in his book[1]. Entirely in his book, he presents works of fiction and description of the ancient religious mysteries and restoration of Lucius from animal to human shape. The original copy of this book was written in Latin, but later translated into English by various scholars, one of them being Adlington, William (trans.) in 1566, and became one of World Class Oxford Classics translation.

Apuleius’s Golden Ass stands out as one of the readable Latin Novels written in the 2^nd century CE. It is one of the common withstand fiction belonging to the Latin fiction that has survived till to date. This is a story with various books that tell about Lucius's curiosity and fascination for sex and magic results in the transformation into an ass[2]. The novel starts with book one which presents Lucius’s journeys to Hypata in Thessaly, where he is introduced to magic and witchcraft, and following his curiosity, he is intrigued into the cultural practices, which transforms him into an ass. The story about travel and witchcraft is explained from the first to the third book. While in this town Lucius, one night he is drunk and he is taken on a fake trial, during the same time he starts sleeping with Photis, a maid whom she requests to allow him to watch the magic[3]. This makes him behaves as an animal and Photis urges him to eat roses just like an animal, more so, he receives other treatments that fully give him an animal personality. Some call him an insect, he is even beaten up by young women and dragged to exhaustion. Lucius also tells us the story of the beautiful woman, Cupid who is isolated from her family, and according to prophesy she would get married to a monster. However, the god of love intervenes and she would marry Psyche, his beloved object. This was a relief from the goddess Venus after severe tribulations and hostility, which receives intervention from the kings of the gods, Jupiter giving the young couples back their union.

Additionally, Lucius continuous to receive more challenges in his adventure. He is sold to the priests, where is almost cooked and served, which he escapes as during this time of the attack by the bear he is so sick and everyone gets afraid of him. Even though he starts eating human food and becomes a celebrity, he is treated like an ass that eats human foods. The climax is reached when he looks at a wealthy woman, who pays to have sex with him, for this case the master decides that the sex play will be done in public at his three-day carnival. However, towards the end of the story Lucius receives salvation, he falls on deep sleep, and when he wakes up, and he offers a prayer to Isis, who comes to him telling him what he should do to become human again. Lucius is given instructions by a procession that comes celebrating Isis, he goes to the priest, eats some roses, and returns to human form. From this time he confesses to devote his life to serve Isis, and becomes one of her priests, he joins a cult and started entering the cult of Osiris. Throughout this novel a lot of themes that are related to religion and theology, some of the outstanding themes that have been presented include gender and sexuality, mystery religion, fate and salvation, magic and rituals, among many others, however, in this essay, the discussion will revolve around the theme of magic and rituals.

In this text, there are various actions that portray magic and rituals, most embarked on religion. In common aspects, magic is seen as witches and dangerous dark arts that might harm, obscure, and encourage various forms of corruption, however, the sense of Christianity as evidenced in Isis and Osiris provides hope for a healthy life and sustaining good morals. More so, Apuleius uses magic and transformation themes to present various occasions that were used for punishing wrongdoers[4]. In this text, there are pieces of evidence of magicians and witches, who have been said to possess the power to cast spells, concocted potions, and also perform rituals. An excellent example that can be pinpointed is when he selects the wrong ointment, which attracts a punishment, he turns into an ass. The contradiction in this time was that people could not differentiate between religion and magic, until the 4^th century when Greek philosophers started the move to remove some practices from religious activity. In the ancient perspective, it was believed that the world was full of divine force, in the execution of these forces the magicians used the language of the mystery rites and complex processes of initiation and laws that were kept private. A critical example of a magic occasion is when Lucius is said to have been turned into an animal as well as the case of male magicians who could transform himself into a wolf.

Furthermore, there occasions in the story that portray the theme of rituals. Throughout the novel, many are times when we are told about the goddess, Isis, cults, and Osiris. Also, involving practices that were between people and gods aimed at intervention towards human life. The gods are also said to take care of people who in turn build shrines and temples from where they worshiped him or her. The story reveals the reason for union with the divine and immortal life, where people believed in the rites of redemption, salvation, death, and life after death. During this time Isis gained various followers Lucius being one of them that led to the growth of cult in the Rome. There are various occasions in the story that represents rites and rituals present in the roman community, they believed in the rite of marriage, Cupid is betrothed to marry a winged monster[5]. In the efforts to understand where the husband would come from she was taken from the mountain top to the valley and a spending home where the new husband would come from. In these rituals, there is a supreme god known as Jupiter who intervenes in difficult situations.

Additionally, the story also tells us about a community that feeds on human beings, who do wrong. A case is when Lucius is falsely accused of killing Tlepolemus, he escapes being fed on only because that day he was sick and people were afraid of him. Besides, their various instances that portray the rituals related to worship, people in this area worship Venus, the goddess of love, who is said to suffer when people neglect the rite and temples of the genuine goddess. After various encounters of struggle, torture, and exhaustion Lucius finds salvation, the salvation comes as he practices the prayer ritual to the Isis, referred to as the great goddess[6]. When the followers of Isis hear of this they come in huge numbers perform a celebration ritual to their goddess, and instruct him. He is directed to a priest with roses, he eats them and therefore becomes and a man again. The procession gets shocked by this transformation and gives praises to Isis, consequently, Lucius, devotes his life wholly to serve this goddess as a priest, joining the cults and enters the Osiris Cult.

Bibliography

Costantini, Leonardo. Magic in Apuleius’› Apologia‹: Understanding the charges and the forensic strategies in Apuleius’ speech. Vol. 373. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG, 2019.

Gaisser, J.H., 2017. Cupid and Psyche. A Handbook to the Reception of Classical Mythology, pp.337-351.

Gély, Véronique. "Apuleius and The Golden Ass: Latin Novel, Universal Folktale, or Emblem of Globalized Literature?." A Companion to World Literature (2020): 1-11.

Gray-Weale, Margaret. "Dante and Lucius Apuleius in Alex Miller's' journey to the stone country'." Metaphor (2019).

Juraj, Franek, and Urbanová Daniela. "“As Isis Loved Osiris, So Let Matrona Love Theodoros...”: Sympathetic Magic and Similia Similibus Formulae in Greek and Latin Curse Tablets (Part 2)." Philologia Classica 14, no. 2 (2019).

Lewis, E., 2020. Duped by an ass: Revisiting the chronology of Apuleius’ Metamorphoses. Ancient Narrative, pp.37-59.

[1] Gély, Véronique. "Apuleius and The Golden Ass: Latin Novel, Universal Folktale, or Emblem of Globalized Literature?." A Companion to World Literature (2020): 1-11.

[2] Gray-Weale, Margaret. "Dante and Lucius Apuleius in Alex Miller's' journey to the stone country'." Metaphor (2019).

[3] Lewis, E., 2020. Duped by an ass: Revisiting the chronology of Apuleius’ Metamorphoses. Ancient Narrative, pp.37-59.

[4] Costantini, Leonardo. Magic in Apuleius’› Apologia‹: Understanding the charges and the forensic strategies in Apuleius’ speech. Vol. 373. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG, 2019.

[5] Gaisser, J.H., 2017. Cupid and Psyche. A Handbook to the Reception of Classical Mythology, pp.337-351.

[6] Juraj, Franek, and Urbanová Daniela. "“As Isis Loved Osiris, So Let Matrona Love Theodoros...”: Sympathetic Magic and Similia Similibus Formulae in Greek and Latin Curse Tablets (Part 2)." Philologia Classica 14, no. 2 (2019).

Sojourner Truth

Introduction

Sojourner Truth was a Black American evangelical preacher, protester, activist, and writer who was enslaved in the USA. Born Isabella Wagener, Sojourner was known for her religious norms which were later to be seen in the movements of her abolitionist right. Isabella was born into slavery and spent most of her younger years at the mercies of her abusive masters. She learned Dutch and bore five children with her fellow slave. Before the city of New York banned slavery, she hid in Isaac Wagener's house. Later Isaac gave her freedom. She joined forces with Quaker friends and they helped her get her son back. Her son was sold illegally into slavery. Sojourner was candid on abolitionist slave issues and regaining women's rights. Her tenacity is seen in her contribution to the lives of slaves and her impact is seen in modern-day society. Since 1828, Sojourner has lived in New York. While in New York she worked as a minister. During the 1830s, she took part in religious revivals that were common at that particular time. Also, she became an effective orator and many people came into these religious revivals to listen to her many speeches. In 1843, she renamed herself Sojourner Truth. As a time to time traveling evangelist, Sojourner met other abolitionists such as Frederick Douglass. One of the abolitionists, Garrison, and his movement cheered Sojourner to speak more of the social illness brought on by slavery. All this time Sojourner did not educate herself, hence she could neither read nor write. In 1850, she verbalized her autobiography. The book was later to be published by Olive Gilbert. After the publication of the book, the sales sustained the life of Sojourner and her fame rose to the national level. She was able to meet with women activists and even some prominent sobriety supporters. This made her name shine and spread to many places in the USA. Most of the time, she could become more inclusive in the things she did for the sake of coming up with the solution for the entire black American community.

The Historic Period of Sojourner Truth

 Sojourner Truth's historic era was marked with numerous challenges because of the slavery and racism that existed during that period. Black women had to endure sexism, rape, and even murder. Black community members were not allowed to own land and even vote. Therefore, everything was against her (Inniss, 2020). It was an uphill task to speak out on slavery hence she had to try her best to come up with effective ways of convincing other people of the harm the slaves inflicted on the black people. She got help from other people of like-mindedness and also published her book to reflect her thoughts on the issue she was fighting for. In the American traditions, Sojourner is seen as a figure who shaped the USA for the better. Famed her an abolitionist and women's rights efforts, contributions were widely noted. To uphold her robust image and push women's agenda, Sojourner deliberately ignored one of her incapacitated right limbs (Oksman, 2018). Thus, she became a powerful representative of strong women whose voice could not be ignored by the rest of the world. Her journey began in the 19^th century. Due to her civil achievements, she met Abraham Lincoln in 1864. Her harsh background motivated her to fight against slavery.

Sojourner Truth’s Role in the Black American Communities

The Van Wagners bought her freedom at $20 and also helped her reunite with her family. One of her greatest and most notable achievements was her lecture tours which she began in 1851. Lecture tours included attending women's conferences where she educated women about their rights and equal opportunities in society. She always pushed the boundaries by challenging the existing notions about women (Smiet, 2017). For instance, she opposed the notion that claimed that women were inferior and brought for the ability of women to speak out to power. One of her supporters Douglass claimed that men should suffer more than women and this difference made her split from Douglass as she believed otherwise. In the wake of the community and civic education, it was difficult convincing the men at that time that women deserved equal rights (Salie, 2020). In Washington DC., Truth petitioned against segregation and in 1860 a law enforcer tried to block her from driving into the street, she prosecuted him and won the case. Her fight to end slavery was one of the ways of ensuring that her grip on the current people could not be swayed, she ensured that most of her time is dedicated to raising awareness and collecting signatures to allow slaves to own land. Even though Congress never responded to allowing slaves to own land, it did not signify a defeat for Sojourner as she had done everything possible to ensure that all the people are held accountable for black lives in the USA.

At a time in history when women were not seen nor heard and slavery was frowned upon, Sojourner Truth embodied courage and challenged racism that was institutionalized in various places in the USA (Blaker, 2020). Racism and bigotry degraded African American women. She changed her name so that she could better champion her cause and bring to light the things slaves were suffering from. Once she came into contact with more people who were of the same mind and knowledge, she was seen as a person who would not only transform the lives of former slaves but also change their perspectives on lives. The chance of coming up with more than one way of achieving freedom won the hearts of many people and it is against this background that her achievements were marked as profound and relevant to the black Americans.

Conclusion

 Her tireless efforts and call to action made her voice heard by a lot of people. The practicality of her efforts to end slavery in the USA. She was one of the first people to push forward the women and slave agenda between 1830 and 1870. For the sake of coming up with ways of freeing the black people from the oppression of their slave masters, she petitioned against segregation and even ensured blacks had a fighting chance when it came to owning property in the USA. Being born into slavery did not keep her mind captive as she had time to come up with ways. Her escape from slavery marked her mission to start preaching and guiding the black communities into freedom and religious matters. Spending 30 years of her life as a slave made her more determined to end slavery and bring closure to the black communities. Her opportunity to write down her biography was celebrated and distinguished by man people.

References

Inniss, L. B. (2020). While the Water Is Stirring: Sojourner Truth as Proto-Agonist in the Fight for (Black) Women's Rights. BUL Rev., 100, 1637.

Smiet, K. (2017). Travelling truths: Sojourner Truth, intersectionality and feminist scholarship. Radboud University, Nijmegen.

Salie, S. (2020). The representations of Sojourner Truth in The Narrative of Sojourner Truth.

Blaker, K. (2020). Sojourner Truth and Her Contemporary Media: Reports of Truth’s Identity, Intelligence, and Eloquence. Young Scholars in Writing, 17, 18-31.

Oksman, A. M. (2018). The Conflict and Concord in Self-Representation of Frederick Douglass and Sojourner Truth.

God’s at the Ritz

Introduction

 The author of the books narrates his side of the story after he was invited on live television to defend his Christian faith. An award-winning television personality, Helen Whitney requested the author to take a consultancy role in a certain documentary which she would direct. The documentary was to expose the challenges Pope John Paul II posed to modern-day traditions. Pope John Paul turned out to be one of the most outspoken Popes of his time. He spoke against most of the issues in society. Pope John Paul II termed contemporary culture as ‘Culture of Death’. Whitney aimed to prove that the Pope was wrong. The book looks at the scientific, political, and religious aspects of the conversation the author availed in the television documentary.

Key insights

According to the author’s sentiments and observations, he observed Whitney collect, edit, and analyze testimonials from numerous cultural leaders who heavily criticized Pope John Paul's rule. Some even termed his behavior as 'unavoidable'. As time went by and the documentary started to piece itself together, the author realized that most of the Pope's teaching were aligned with certain morals codes and conduct that required the clergy to seek God. As the author suggests, “Still the persistence of the religious impulse or longing for God, is truly amazing” (Albacete, 2002, 17).  This statement reinforced the things which the Pope defended would be termed 'immature and alienating' in the 20th-century era. Also, the author terms the Pope's sentiments as 'atheism humanism'. The author found himself in a state of despair as he had to question his own religious believes themselves (Albacete, 2002). Hence, the author realized that he found it hard to finish analyzing some sections of the documentary. For example, the faith segment gave him a hard time.

After the completion of the entire program, the author was to assist in citing the places where the public would meet and hold a forum on the issues presented in the film (Albacete, 2002). The places were to help the entire film garner more clout hence attracting more people to its actual launch.

The questions directed at the author were not just concerning the Pope but also about the subject matter of importance such as life and death, and ethical issues that are common to the society as illustrated in this statement, “It is precisely because Adam and Eve see it that way that they are compelled to follow the serpent’s advice” (Albacete, 2002, 23). The Pope is a representation of a particular manner of thinking or expressing thoughts hence must be taken seriously. However, God has given man a choice, to either choose life or death just as Adam and Eve had a choice.

Analysis

 The author had to explain his thoughts either in line with the Pope's sentiments or his own. It was like putting him between a rock and a hard place. He had to analyze his faith, according to him, “So it is with us, according to O’Connor. We certainly have more possessions and knowledge today” (Albacete, 2002, 19). Critically evaluating personal faith sets the standards for the answers that were shared in the forum. The mandate of the author was to deliver smart answers to people who hold a different faith or even opinion. To communicate in a manner that showed unity in purpose and religion, he had to express himself and come to terms with the way people were perceiving the pope.

 In summary, the author had to focus on his desire for the priesthood and the initial stages he had passed to be where he is present. Reflecting on certain experiences gave him a chance to be more open to the entire discussion. It is against the norm to go against a sitting power, hence the author had to ensure that his statement is in line with general terms and the entire world would concur with everything that he had to say at that particular moment.

Reference

Albacete, L. (2002). God at the Ritz: Attraction to Infinity. Crossroad Publishing Company.

Achieving Mindfulness through Buddhist Meditation and Prayer

Introduction

Meditation or what is known as Sanskrit Samadhi is a state of resting and being in a state of concentration. During meditation, a persona gains a balance of awareness and the ability to recognize the inner power. An important point to understand about meditation is that the connectedness between a student and a teacher or a doctor and a patient is the same connectedness that is required in meditation techniques. This is because, meditation helps one realize inner potential. Therefore, a positive relationship is required so that during meditation, a person can understand the judgment's attitudes and beware of the cause to gain enlightenment.  Mindfulness can be defined as a process where a person pays attention to the present moment to understand internal events. During mindfulness, a person does not concentrate on changing internal events but controls the event. Mindfulness is not contemplation (right concentration), it is not a form of prayer, it is not a form of communication, and it is not a method to prevent negative behaviors. Meditation is having a deep relaxation to gain calmness and access the true self.  There is a proverb that says "when the pupils are ready, the teacher will come". Similarly, when a person quiets the mind, he gains insights and understands the right direction. Meditation according to Buddhism teaching is based on perception or in other words using perception to understand our lives and overcome harmful ways. For instance, Buddha had a painful disease and he was given the perception and he received healing. Likewise, individuals should engage in meditation through perception. The latter helps understand the body and mind. The process reveals experiences whether solid or undesirable and the understanding provides a cultivating purified perception that brings freedom from physical and mental suffering. Apart from focusing on perception during meditation, individuals should engage in concentration mediation which means having a gentile calm and focus in the experience, the mind will settle and become calm and emotional turmoil will decrease. Second, a person should engage in insight mediation or have a deeper understanding of our lives. Exploring the roots of Buddhist meditation, its nature of consciousness, and analyzing saint’s emphasis on the awareness of prayer, one can dissect the concept of mindfulness and its significant and long-lasting impact.  

Meditation in Burma during colonial times

 Ledi Sayadaw showed his interest in studying Buddhist doctrine and protecting the Buddhist religion.  During the 20th century, Ledi had empowered many people who were willing to understand the Buddhist literature. Ledi focused on Abhidhamma, a philosophical text that provides people with highly valued teachings (Braun, 5). During this period, the largest part of Burma was conquered during the war and in trying to figure out how the British power controlled the country, Ledi established abstruse Buddhist doctrine so that the British could not destroy the country (Braun, 5). Another strategy that Ledi used was establishing forms of meditation. In particular, meditation was a solution to the social disruption that had occurred in the country.

Meditation allowed people to reflect on the past and focus on the present to achieve a realization (Braun, 6). Meditation was classified into two types: calming which means having a great concentration and insight meditation. Calming comes first as it allows a person to have a stable mind and insight comes second as its role is to allow gain an understanding of the nature of life. That said, calming meditation requires an effort since one is required to have attention or penetrating focus whereas insight requires a mindful observation. Braun (6) notes that before the colonial period, meditation was practiced but Ledi made it an important practice after the colonial period. Ledi noted that "Maturity of knowledge is the main, the one thing required" (Braun, 6). When talking about meditation, Ledi would convince people that meditation could be achieved through study, or in other words, the Buddha teachings would help people understanding meditation. Before the colonial era, meditation was practiced in Burma, not as a form of mindfulness but as a form of study. Buddhism laypeople wanted to learn virtuous behaviors. Ledi Sayadaw was a monk in Burma and he could teach and gain fame. Since Ledi was well known as a person with a knowledge of human nature, many people were interested in learning his practice and in particular meditation teachings (Braun, 7). A metaphor that can help understand meditation is a wind drives waves that blow and washes the sand grains. Similarly, meditation is a process where a person gains relaxation and reflects on the present movement.

Another important point about Buddhist meditation is cultivation. The latter means that meditation is not just namely a practice.  Rather, a person needs practical training. In specific, Buddhism used "precepts' in everyday life to gain a conceptual meaning of the cultural and social systems (Loyola, 9). Meditation practice had a cultivation meditation or a process in which Buddhism concentrates on one's mind to promote spiritual enhancement and character. The goal of cultivation to gain wisdom that helps understand the authentic self. Cultivation helps understand that meditation is not only about focusing on the present moment but one needs to focus on mind and body (Levey & Michelle, 2). According to the Buddhist philosophy, there are things which do not have an ego and such things require denial of self (Levey & Michelle, 2). Thus, one needs to practice meditation and this is what is known as cultivation. In Buddhism, lay people followed precepts that allowed them to go beyond the social norms. For example, the precepts say not to kill, steal, commit adultery, and other moral laws. Thus, Buddhists had a religious cultivate that surpass secular standards. Cultivation promoted character formation in that individuals did not live as average persons but they established norms or self-vow precepts that were connected with meditation (Levey & Michelle, 3). To achieve mindfulness through meditation and prayer, on need cultivation, or the act of creating a link between the self and the external world. In general, cultivating meditation is having a love and kindness and all negative characters such as aversion, discontent, ill-will, and cruelty will be abandoned. One needs to consider the external world and uncover the good qualities.  

  Harvey (171) states that on the language of Buddhism, two scholarly languages are used and they will help   understand the historical root of Buddhism meditation. Ancient India used Pali whereas Sanskrit is used in Mahayana Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism is used in Northern and Eastern Buddhism. However, the commonly used term in Pali, a term that was used in early Buddhism. Buddhism has about 2500 years since discovery and today, Buddhism has a dominant cultural force in the world (Harvey, 171).  Buddha means 'Awakened One'. This means that people do not understand the nature of life and they are in a deep sleep. However. Buddha's are "perfect ally Awaked Ones" (Harvey, 172). This means that Buddha adheres to the Buddha guidelines and therefore they are awakened. Buddhism is concerned about the awakening of human beings for them to gain transformation. Buddha encourages people to focus on understanding and realization. Individuals are expected to follow the Buddha teachings for them to attain libertarian. However, during the Christianity era, another form of Buddhism was established. Mahayana was the second Buddhism that focuses on holy behavior being.  Mahayana has guidelines that people should follow. However, Mahayana has several sophisticated philosophies. Since almost of Buddhist schools use early cannon teachings, changes have been made following the addition of systematizing texts peculiar (Harvey, 173). For example, the early canons have Vinaya and another section has Abhidhamma. Today, Buddhism in India and beyond, and in all areas, concentrates on spiritual development. For instance, in Southern Buddhism, Buddhist worship nature gods whereas in as Sri Lank, Buddhist worship cults. When Buddhist worship minor powers, they believe that it is a way of seeking help.

The secularization of meditation mindfulness

              The sole objective of a sacred meditation is to create a superior state or rather bring wholeness. However, the Westernization of meditation is not secular, or in other words, its focus on controlling the psychobiological processes (McMahan, 3). Note that a sacred meditation focus on enlightenment. However, there is sacred meditation in Eastern cultures, and meditation through mindfulness is no longer used for spiritual enlightenment but it is used as a method to reduce stress and anxiety (Rao, 301). Eastern and Western cultures have a scientific understanding that motivate them to use drugs to promote meditative practices. A point to note is that in the Buddhist tradition, meditation practices involve observation of the present event. The practice had a positive effect on psychology and cognition but the securitized program has modified the mindfulness principles. Today, meditation practices have been incorporated in the psychotherapy program and therapeutic intervention to ease the mind and body. Even though modern culture is practicing mindfulness meditation practices, they do not focus on promoting spiritual enlightenment but rather, their aim goal is to manage stress. A point to understand is that the general wisdom about physical science has contributed to bias and external pressure. The problem with secularization is that individuals’ focus on scientific constructs which restrict them from having free will (Rao, 301).The Western and Eastern cultures have relaxed the traditional cultures and the consequences are failure to have awareness of mental activity. During meditation practices, individuals have unconscious motivations and hence awareness is not accessible. According to the Buddies doctrine, consciousness is associated with mystical realization. This means that a person can distinguish between representational knowledge and unmediated knowledge. Another point is that consciousness allows individuals to understand cognition and conduct and the result is self-actualizing experiences (Rao, 301).  Realization plays a significant real in life as it allows humans to make distinctions between belief and behavior, and conduct and values.  However, the Western and the Eastern model raises an empirical claim o about how individuals will achieve a state of pure consciousness.

Mindfulness in Buddhist Meditation and Prayer

            Buddhism's perception of mindfulness comes from Buddhism teachings about the craving and need for self-centered enjoyment. Craving means that individuals lack accurate knowledge and for this reason, people crave sensual pleasures. People are ignorant or in other words, they are uninformed about important things in life.  Knowledge allows people to understand things in a distorted manner and ultimately, they lack enjoyment and sensual beauty (Levey & Michelle, 189). That said, individuals need conscious awareness and Buddha's path is the only way where people can gain a cognitive breakthrough and achieve final victory However, for people to eliminate ignorance and gain final freedom, they need mental training. In Buddhism, individuals require 'anupassana' which means close and repeat over time to achieve the insight and ultimate liberation (Levey & Michelle, 189). In general, individuals need a perceptual transformation and the transformation entails five steps that yield great fruit and benefit.  For example, the perception transformation known as Girimanfnad Sutta focuses on illness and decay. However, in western Cultural, Buddhism meditation through mindfulness is another form of liberating insight. Girimanda Sutta also focuses on meditation practices which are derived from the Pali Buddhist tradition (Wallace, 37). 

On mindfulness meditation, (Seaward, 149) says that mindfulness is being fully present to every activity. For example, when washing a cup, a person pays attention to running water and soap and how to handle the cup. Likewise, mindfulness is paying attention to everything we have in life or to all activities. Seaward (151) talks about how to incorporate meditation and assert that the first step is to dedicate time to a particular activity. For example, while brushing teeth, do not take it as a casual leisure activity. Instead, take five minutes to pay attention to the activity. The second step is to find a place for meditation in your inner heart. This means that since meditation is in you, you can practice it anywhere anytime. What is needed is having a conscious focus despite life changes. The third step is to have a mind-body connection. Note that mindfulness plays many roles such as helping an individual relieve pain and stress. Therefore, to achieve the goal of meditation, one needs to have a deep insight into the things you are doing. Gunaratana provides similar steps such as finding a quiet place, settle and relax, focus on the present moment, and be gentle and flexible.

 Focusing on early Buddhism mediation, Arbel (137) asserts that sati is a concept in Buddhism meditation practice. Sati means having a present memory that will enable achieve real knowledge. Sati is an important concept that protects the mind from unwholesome states and ensures that the mind focuses on wholesome. Sati provides the insight to view the right effort and ensures that the person has pre-conceptual attention. Another important point is that in mediation practice, sati provides a specific observation that reveals the true nature (Arbel, 138). However, Buddha does not define sati as a memory but he says that sati is a mental quality that helps attain awakening. Buddha suggests that mindfulness is not only reflecting to the past but it also entails paying attention to the present experience. This process requires observation and in this case, 'sati' helps a person observe on psychological dimensions. In other words, the role of sati is to ensure that the mind focuses on the experiential field. It provides a pre-conceptual awareness through a cognitive process and cultivation. Another important point to note about sati in Buddhism mindfulness is that sati is not connected to thinking and intention. That sati is a form of consciousness that is developed fully and it is affected by conceptual constructions. Sati is not linked to desire and ignorance and thus it does not need intentional effort to create awareness (Arbel, 138). This indicates that sati has an 'automatic' function and hence it has an awakened awareness. Thus, sati facilities insight by providing sustained attention. (146)  

Mindfulness through awareness in prayer

Despite the Secularization of meditation mindfulness, Buddhism is still meditating the reality of expressing themselves devotionally through prayers. Buddhism pray to the existing beings and they pray to deity yoga. These prayers overlap Christian prayer and this means that   Christians have been influenced by the Buddhism way of praying. For example in the first prayer, Buddhism prays for invisible superhuman beings. Buddhism believes that these beings exist as saints or angels and they have the power to respond to petitions (Martin, 74). Buddhism also prays to the deity and they believe that deities are real beings who have the power to provide spiritual empowerment. Similarly, Christians pray to God and believe that he will respond to petition. This shows that Christianity overlap with Buddhist prayer since they both have an ultimate reality that prayers will be answered. Another important point is that prayers and beliefs can make a difference in one's life and therefore, Buddhism and Christiana mediate by rejoicing and making prayers of gratitude. Michele (189) says that “Silent meditation, without thoughts, totally open, awake, and aware, this is absolute prayer!” This statement shows that a contemplative prayer reveals the awareness of God and the relationship between God and humans. 

On meditation and prayer, Garret (62) assert that prayer and meditation are different things. Prayer is communicating with God and meditation is listening to the 'still voice' of God.  A person can pray for guidance, give thanks, to ask for divine power, and other many purposes. For example, popular people such as Ignatius of Loyola and Francis of Assisi advise about humility, penance, and being wholehearted while communicating with the Lord (Loyola, 9). The Benedictine Rule talks about fix-hour prayer and says that there should not be a specific hour of prayer. People usually pray three times a day but there is a radical change or a new rule that states that people should pray anytime they feel like talking to God. For example, Garret (62) says "The Miracle of Mindfulness". The author shows that a person can pray while doing other activities such as washing dishes. People are used to closing eyes and bowing heads but the Benedictine Rule focuses on awareness. Awareness during prayer means that a Christian should have an opportunity to pay attention to life. Note that Buddhism meditation practices are performed anywhere and anytime. Similarly, prayers should be performed anywhere and anytime even if it is in the office or homes.

Conclusion

The mindfulness topic teaches that everyone wants to be happy but if you want to be happy, you must clearly state what kind of happiness you want. Some want physical comfort, while others want mental contentment. The bad thing with physical happiness is that it is expensive as it solely focuses on material things. It has nothing to do with inner qualities but on a positive note, one can cope with difficulties and stresses that come on the way.  Still, a person can choose to have mental contentment and be happy despite crises and suffering.  The bottom-line of the issue of happiness is that according to Buddhism, happiness should come from within.  Buddhist saints said that only fool people seek happiness outside. The wise know that genuine happiness and peace comes from within. However, to gain this happiness and inner peace, one needs a relaxed mind. When you have peace inside, things run smoothly in that it is easier to carry the daily task, understand the nature of life, and decide what is right and what is wrong. Therefore, the concept of mindfulness through prayer and meditation reveals that human beings need to understand their mind. Note that the mind is full of fear and anxieties that restricts us from having a bring future. However, when a person tames the mind and understands what is going on inside, one will have the confidence in addressing problems and finding happiness. The article reveals that mindfulness helps a person gain awareness of the thoughts both positive and negative. The important point to note is that it is not a crime having negative thought, what worsens the condition is not being mindful of the thought. Therefore, the process of mindfulness helps one focus on the feelings. Buddhists practice mindfulness to address their suffering and once a person gains a self-discovery, compassion for other people arise naturally. Thus, one should beware of the inner potential and the power to receive the perceptions.  During meditation, one should be watchful and recognize capacities and capabilities as well as perceptions.

Work cited

Arbel, Keren. Early Buddhist Meditation: The Four Jhanas as the Actualization of Insight.

Taylor & Francis, 2017.

Braun, Erik. The Birth of Insight: Meditation, Modern Buddhism, and the Burmese Monk Ledi

Sayadaw. , 2013. Internet resource.

Garrett, Greg. The Other Jesus: Rejecting a Religion of Fear for the God of Love. Louisville:

Presbyterian Publishing Corporation, 2011. Internet resource.

Harvey, Peter. An Introduction to Buddhism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Textbooks, 2012. Internet resource.

Levey, Joel, and Michelle Levey. Mindfulness, Meditation, and Mind Fitness. Place of

publication not identified: Mango Media, 2015. Internet resource.

Levey, Joel, and Michelle Levey. Mindfulness, Meditation, and Mind Fitness. , 2015. Print.

Loyola, Ignatius Of, et al. Ignatius of Loyola: The Spiritual Exercises and Selected Works.

Paulist Press, 1991.

Martin, James. My life with the saints. Loyola Press, 2016.

McMahan, David L, and Erik Braun. Meditation, Buddhism, and Science. , 2017. Print.

Rao, K R. Consciousness Studies: Cross-cultural Perspectives. Jefferson, N.C: McFarland, 2005.

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Seaward, Brian L. Achieving the Mind-Body-Spirit Connection: A Stress Management

Workbook. Sudbury, Mass: Jones and Bartlett, 2005. Print.

Wallace, B A. Mind in the Balance: Meditation in Science, Buddhism, Et Christianity. , 2014.

Print.

Biblical metanarrative

Introduction

 The Bible contains 66 books, yet they do not contradict each other in terms of message and objective. The message is carried forward from one book to the next while adhering to God's true nature (Christian, 2017). Thus, the Bible has remained relevant due to its familiarity with humanity and its surroundings. In other words, the Bible is a collection of books containing one synthesized message. In addition, the scriptures of the Bible interpret themselves; hence one scripture can be compared with another in order to unveil an initial meaning or complete interpretation. This paper will discuss the coherence and unified nature of the Bible through the glory of God and holiness.

Holiness

 From the creation to man's fall, the holiness of God is the central theme facilitating Biblical narrative (Christian, 2017). Although the entire scriptures, God is powerful and creates the earth through word of mouth. Hence, God's real nature is his holiness- he shapes words into the universe and breathes life into the lungs of man, thus giving him life instantly. The holiness of God is seen throughout Biblical texts. Each and every character that comes into contact with God is transformed into his likeness (Genesis 17). For example, Abram changes his name to Abraham, and Saul changes his name to Paul (Acts 13.9). The change comes after they meet with God. As simple as it might seem, God, ensures that Abraham leaves his ancestral home for a promised land.

On the other hand, Paul becomes an evangelist who spreads the gospel. Thus, God's holiness is seen through the lifestyles of the people who serve him. Additionally, the holiness of God cannot be limited to people's moral standing (Dent, 2019). A part of his lifestyle, God's holiness portrays him as a larger than life character who does not conform to his average lifestyle. As demonstrated in Genesis, Moses had to bow down to a burning bush because God's presence was in the vicinity.

Similarly, in line with God's redemption plan, his holiness is not limited to man's good works. God calls man's holiness filthy rags hence the need for God to save man from sin through sending his son to die for man on the cross (Dent, 2019). In simpler terms, God's holiness drives him to save humanity and give him a second chance at life through redemption.

The Glory of God

 The centerpiece of the Bible is based on God's glory. There is nothing that God cannot do. God is greater than man, and the scripture portrays God as a hero who cannot bow down to man. For instance, the Egyptians fail to take hid of God's request to release Israel's children from captivity (Dent, 2019). Even though Pharaoh competes with God, he ends up losing. Plague after plague, the Egyptians suffered at the hands of a glorious God. Such glory is seen in other parts of the Bible and is consistent with Jesus' miracles. One of the most common illustrations used to bring out God’s glory is the Red Sea parting. The Israelites witnessed the first-hand glory of God as he parted the Red Sea and spared their life from falling into the hands of the Egyptians. In the end, God demonstrates his restoration and power to sustain human beings no matter what might be standing in the way.

  In instances where God's glory does not manifest through miracles, the people worship God and bring glory to God. Some passages in the Bible claim that if the man cannot worship God, then the stones and animals will sing of his glory until the heavens hear them. The genuine nature with which scriptures describe God hints at his glorious nature. There is no passage in the Bible that is greater than God’s glory (Dent, 2019). The realization that God is all-knowing and cannot be bowed creates an atmosphere of reverence around God's word, and people speak to the glory of God. Thus, one can be assured that throughout one can be assured that the authors are speaking about one God hence creating the unified coherence of the Bible. In the end, the Bible generates a consistent theme through which it narrates its stories and objectives.

 Keeping in mind that most of the authors did not consult each other while writing their respective books gives an underlying reason for inspiration from God himself. The glory of God seems to be the central theme of the Bible as he has the power to do anything he wishes to do. While most scholars claim that God's glory is indicative of creative human instincts, it makes the Bible coherent and unifies the message from one script to the next. In the end, God does everything through man's obedience hence forming a stable relationship with the man and fulfilling his will without any significant hindrance. In the end, following God's terms and conditions sustains humanity. Also, man has a role to play in the bringing glory to God and ensuring that he lives according to the obligations and expectations God has placed on him.

References

Bible Acts 13.9, Genesis 17

Christian, B. (2017). The parable of the Master Teacher: Redemptive discipline and biblical metanarrative. TEACH Journal of Christian Education, 11(1), 4.

Dent, C. A. (2019). The Grand Narrative Worldview: A Narrative Inquiry into the Impact of Biblical Metanarrative Teaching in Liberty University’s School of Divinity Global Studies Program.

Fromm on religion

Fromm’s quote "Man’s main task in life is to give birth to himself, to become what he potentially is” (Fromm, 2004) is quite interesting as it explains how people’s personality influences their lives. Most of the actions that people engage in and the decisions they make are influenced by their personalities. People should therefore align their interests with things they are passionate about in order to build strong personal identities.

What are the core teachings that Fromm believes are part of the thinking of the founders of most of the world′s religions? 

            According to Fromm most of the world’s religions viewed religion as a tool to assert control over the people and retain power. The notion was attributed to the discipline and structure associated with the church authority and the control it had over its followers (Fromm, 2004). Religious teachings helped people to gain more control over their lives by protecting them from feelings of powerlessness. Founders therefore sought to use religion not just to spread god’s word, but also to bring stability and purpose in society. According to Fromm, religion was used as a tool to give people a sense of unity and satisfied their need to belong.

How does Fromm interpret the myth of the Garden of Eden?

            Fromm believed that the story of the Garden of Eden was used symbolically to explain how man lost touch with nature. After eating the fruit, Adam and eve became conscious of the things that were taking place around them and this destroyed the unity that human beings had with nature (Fromm, 2004). In an unselfconscious animal state, human beings were in touch with nature and at peace.  The experience at the Garden of Eden however mad them conscious of things like their nakedness and other limitations that took away the peace.

Fromm interpret the principle of ″Love thy neighbor as thyself″?

            Fromm interpretation is greatly influenced by his belief that human beings seek unity, to be one with each other and with society. Loving one’s neighbor, according to Fromm is a way for human beings to become one with one another and in so doing, regain the harmonious state they had with the universe (Fromm, 2004). From further believed that vices in society such as anxiety ad feelings of loneliness are as a result of being separated from each other and from nature. Loving thy neighbor as thy self would therefore create a unity that would restore human beings to a harmonious state free from such vices.

Reference

Fromm E, (2004) “The dogma of Christ: and other essays on religion, psychology and culture”    Rutledge Classics

Describe what the specifically Etruscan characteristics in temple design are; how are these characteristics different from Greek temple design.

  The characteristics of the Etruscan temple were wooden columns, the temples had three cellas, the roof had terracotta tiles where narrative statuary was placed, the wall was made of bricks, entrance was made of stone and columns were at the podium (Gardner & Kleiner, 2011).  These characteristics were different from Greek in that the Greek temples had columns all sides so that it appeared as a sculptural mass. Greek temple had one cella and the pediment was decorated.

 Describe what developmental phases we can observe in the design of Etruscan residential architecture; use the Northwest Gate complex at Veii and the house at Vetulonia as your examples.  Include in your discussion the kinds of building materials that went into house construction.

  Etruscan residential architecture was made of perishable materials and construction had two phases: an oval hut, a rectangular house model with stone foundations. The For example, the Northwest Gate complex at Veii had two developmental phases; a hut made of tufa blocks, rectangular house, made of stone (Ulrich & Quenemoen, 2014). The house at Vetulonia   has two developmental phases; ovoid ground plans and a rectilinear plan. Etruscan residential architecture used building materials such as bricks, woods, and stones. 

  Differentiate between the processes of preservation/conservation of historic monuments and presentation of historic monuments, two key concepts in historic preservation practice

  Conservation of historic monument maintaining the building or sides  so that they do not lose their significance and that they may be used by future generations’ on the other hand, presentation  meanings using  written, verbal, or visual method to  communicate the  message of the historic m monument  to the public (Feilden, 2007). A point to note that presentation is done to people who are interested in cultural values. In both conservation and preservation, there should be programme that aim at maintaining the historical evidence and avoid aesthetic confusion. 

 Describe some of the activities that go on around the actual preservation of ancient sites and what they add to the historic preservation process and eventual presentation of the archaeological site.

                  The preservation of ancient sites require a holistic approach preservationist’s gather information to gain knowledge of the archaeological wealth. The information also help them know the degree of damage, the resources needed and the appropriate actions. The first activity is prioritization which involves assessing the religious, economic, and cultural and religious values of the site (Baker & Chitty, 2013). Another activity is reductionism or the process of understand each site, their values, and their role. The big picture helps preserve the site for the future. The last activity is movement and monitoring of resources. These activities add to the presentation of archeological site in that visitors can see the historian reality in authentic way.  Visitors come to site for cultural performance and for remembrance of historical monuments.

  What are the characteristics of Villanovan impasto wares; what kinds of surface decoration was applied to the impasto vessels and what are examples of the kinds of pottery produced with this impasto fabric?impasto wares were

 Villanovan impasto wares is a pottery which was made using clay, it has a burnished surface and it was black in color. The surface decoration were dark brown and black (Bonfante, 1986). Examples of the kinds of pottery include; water ware jug, a cockerel, drinking cup, single handed cup, and bowl.

  Why is the Portonaccio Minerva Temple at Veii important for our understanding Etruscan terracotta sculpture; what kind of sculpture is preserved there, which divinities are represented and what is the sculptural style they are represented in?.

 The Portonaccio Minerva Temple at Veii helps understand the Etruscans and in particular the religious shrine. One kind of sculpture that is preserved in the temple is Etruscans sculptor and the divinity presented is god Apulu (Gardner & Kleiner, 2010). Etruscan terracotta sculpture; was influenced by Greek art and this means that   the temple represents a Roman Sculpture

 Describe the sculptural style used in the Sarcophagi of the Spouses from the Villa Giulia and Louvre museums and cite details from the sculpture.  What is the setting the spouses are represented in and how does that context relate to Etruscan funerary practice (you can refer back to Etruscan painting if you wish)?

The Sarcophagi of the Spouses   uses a Romanian sculptural style. This is because, the painted terracotta is a human –shaped painting   of 19^th century    and now it discovered in Rome.  The   spouse are representing    women freedom   unlike in the Greek society, women in Etruscan society enjoyed freedom and they could participate in activities such as painting (Bell & Carpino, 2016).  The Sarcophagi of the Spouse relate to Etruscan funeral practice   in that since to figures are equal.  This means that   when a spouse die, the partner will conduct funeral rituals and the deceased will be remembered. 

  The famous Etruscan statue of the Orator (slides 43-45) is a useful example of the general process called acculturation, more specifically in this case, Romanization.  Discuss how this statue shows how Etruscan aristocrats adapted Roman customs after the Roman conquest of Etruria.

            The Etruscan adapted Roman customs through cultural and artistic traditions. Thus,   Etruscans adopted the ides of other cultures and combined with their conventions to understand Roman cultures (Turfa, 2012).

 Describe what are the two main burial types in use in the Sorbo Cemetery at Caere up until the Orientalizing Period.  Which type is better preserved and why.

Two main burial types are Regolini-Galassi and Caditoia tombs.  Regolini-Galassi is    better preserved because it had Bronze shields and it has other features like base tumulus and moldings (Banti, 1973). On the other hand, caditoia is tiny.

Judging from the Sample Tomb Inventories from the Villanovan period in the Sorbo Cemetery at Caere, in the artifact groups of grave goods for the sample burials, what are the indications of wealth and gender? Provide examples of richer and poorer burials.

            There was gender differentiation as a result of egalitarian social organization (Banti, 1973). For example, I funeral graves there were funeral goods such as bronze vessels and precious metals.

 Both Caere and Pyrgi are typical examples of the fate of Etruscan cities and their territories after the Roman conquest.  What was the Roman strategy in their treatment of Caere and Pyrgi; how were Pyrgi and Caere isolated with respect to the regional regional economy.

 First, it is important to note that Etruscan had influenced the Roman culture. Rome benefited greatly in terms of learning architectural style, new religious practices and territorial expansion. However, war started when Rome wanted land expansion or taking a small Etruscan land and in 369 BC, Rome defeated the Etruscan and by 90BC, Etruscan gained Roman citizenship (Banti, 1973). In 15^th century Rome isolated Pyrgi and Caere from regional economy by colonizing the region and blocking its market opportunities.

 Why is the Regolini-Galassi tomb important for understanding the development of Etruscan culture at Caere and the changes that take place in the Orientalizing Period in general; what kind of tomb is it and what types of grave goods were recovered from it; what do the grave goods indicate about the status of those buried there.

 The Regolino-Galassi tomb helps understand the function of the tomb. It reveals that the Etruscan society has numerous   investments in funerary accommodations and public structures (Banti, 1973). It also reveals the Etruscan civilization and funerary rituals.

 Why was the goddess Uni worshiped in the sanctuary at Pyrgi; what aspects of human life was she the patroness of? Judging from the archaeological remains in the sanctuary connected with Uni, why would you say that her cult was one of the most important ones there?

The goddess Uni was an all-powerful deity that was believed to cause thunderbolts. All the women in the cities especially Pyrgi and Perugia were believed to be under her watch and protection (Gimbutas & Dexter, 1999). Uni is shown as having taken care of Hercle as an adult. This shows aspects of human life.

. What are the architectural phases of burial at the Banditacchia cemetery; what kinds of funerary architecture distinguish the Orientalizing Phase and what kinds of structures are imitated in the design and decoration of the tomb interiors.

 The burial at the Banditacchia cemetery has a paved access road and the tomb is covered by mounds. There a stair leading to the podium. The cemetery reveal the changes from Caere to the Roman state.

In the two temples of Uni and Thesan at Pyrgi, what different kinds of architectural design are represented by the two temple buildings?  What is the archaeological evidence on site for your conclusions?

The two temples at Pyrgi included Graeco- Tuscan and Tuscan. There was a significant influence of the Greek architecture in designing these temples. The walls were essentially of stone (Banti, 1973). On the other hand, the temples had the Roman architectural design, which put emphasis on the frontal face and this ensured that the temples were colorful besides being highly decorated. The remains of stones found at the sites attest to this finding.

What are the most visible remains of the Roman colony at Pyrgi and what are some of the impediments to archaeological excavation on the site? What kinds of information were produced by the archaeological survey and underwater excavations on the site in 1974?

The rectilinear street-system are basically the most visible evidence of the roman colony. The impediments included materials buried down the ground thus decomposing to and this technically meant that evidence was lost. The 1974 excavations showed that the harbor that had a semi-protection might have some form of Etruscan settlement (Banti, 1973). The excavation also led to the discovery of wooden forms that were found preserved around the structure of concrete.

References

Baker, D., & Chitty, G. (Eds.). (2013). Managing historic sites and buildings: reconciling

presentation and preservation. Routledge.

Banti, L. (1973). Etruscan cities and their culture. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Bell, S., & Carpino, A. A. (Eds.). (2016). A Companion to the Etruscans. John Wiley & Sons.

Bonfante, L. (1986). Etruscan life and afterlife: A handbook of Etruscan studies. Detroit, Mich:

Wayne State University Press.

Feilden, B. (2007). Conservation of historic buildings. Routledge.

Gardner, H., & Kleiner, F. S. (2010). Gardner's art through the ages: The Western perspective.

Mason, Ohio: Cengage Learning.

Gardner, H., & Kleiner, F. S. (2011). Gardner's art through the ages: A global history. Australia:

Wadsworth, Cengage Learning.

Gimbutas, M., & Dexter, M. R. (1999). The living goddesses. Berkeley: University of California

Press.

Turfa, J. M. I. (2012). Divining the etruscan world: The brontoscopic calendar and religious

practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Ulrich, R. B., & Quenemoen, C. K. (Eds.). (2014). A companion to Roman architecture. Wiley

Blackwell.

FAITH AND PRAYERS

Introduction

            Faith is the trust and belief in the promises of God. It is trusting his faithfulness, his salvation, and eternal life that he has promised. Faith is believing in anything we hope for and being certain of what we don’t see. It is believing that God is trustworthy, honors his promises, and fulfills the desires of our hearts. Prayer is an expression of faith in the power of God, driven by a desire to want to know more about him. It is a clear admission that nothing is possible without God and we have to seek him for us to experience His goodness and mercies. Prayer and faith transform all the trials and tribulations that are related to our everyday life. God demands us to pray about anything and it is through our faith that we believe that whatever we prayed for will be fulfilled. Prayer and faith heal the body and mind and gives us peace of mind. Prayer is an act of faith because it involves believing and trusting in the Lord's doings and promises.

God fulfills prayers even those that seem impossible to normal being. The story of Peter in the Bible represents the outcomes of prayer and faith. When Peter was in prison, the church was praying for him and through those prayers, God sent an angel to let him out of prison. He showed up at the house of Mary where people were still gathered and were praying as a free man. The servant heard the knock at the door and when she listened and heard Peter’s voice she went to tell the rest of the people but they could not believe it. Their prayers had been answered and Peter was no longer in prison. It is through their faith and prayers to God that Peter was back with them when they least expected it.

References

New international Version Bible. Acts: 12:14-15

Religion: A tool for unity and morals

Religion plays an important role in society as it sets the standards of morality and also unites people together under a common or similar principle. In accordance with Emile Durkheim’s theory on the social function of religion, religious practices can be seen as a reflection of the activities that take place in society and the concerns of the people in it. Although there are different types of religion, the customs and traditions observed helps people to reach a similar feeling of fulfillment from religion. This paper will therefore focus on how religion brings people together through its customs and traditions regardless of the varying beliefs that people have and also the religious practices observed.

            Durkheim strongly believes that understanding religion could help create a better understanding of society and the members in it. Take totemism as an example. The religion was common among Australian aboriginals where different clans regarded different objects as sacred (Module VI, n.d). The objects comprised of things that the aboriginals interacted with on a regular basis such as plans or animals. While the sacred objects may have differed, the influence that religion had on the people as well as the control it had on decisions made and practices, they engage in proves that religion has the ability to bring people together. Although some differences may exist in how people practice religion, it is common for people to respect these differences due to the importance that religion holds (Module VI, n.d). As such, people are able to set aside differences that would bring conflict and in so doing, allow for the growth and expansion of communities. Engaging in similar religious practices creates some sense of unity and offers a platform where people can peacefully coexist despite their differences.

            The argument that religion plays the role of bringing people together and promoting peaceful coexistence is solidified by Freud’s argument in support of religion. According to Sigmund Freud, religion is the unconscious mind’s desire to attain fulfillment (Freud et al, 2012). He further argues that belief in God is based off of people’s desire to get rid of guilt and attains some form of security. Believing in a supreme being therefore offers a father figure who has the power to not only absolve people of guilt but also offers a guideline on how to live a secure and fulfilling life. It is this belief in God that unites people who share common beliefs and interests in society depending on the religious practices observed.

            On the topic of morals, Freud points out that, human beings possess instinctual urges that could have a negative impact on society if not controlled. The urges can be compared to the different objects that believers of totemism hold sacred. Similar to how varying sacred objects do not affect how people worship; the urges that people have come secondary to the overall morals and restrictions that each religion teaches (Durkheim, 2015). Durkheim adds on to this by pointing out how people are affected by issues such as individualism and weakening of the nation and family structure. In the past, morals were passed down to the young by parents and the pride one attaches to a country. The importance of the family and loyalty to a country has faced great criticism over time, leaving religion as a major determinant of the morals that people abide to in society.

            In the past, religion served the purpose of spreading Gods word and educating people through customs and traditions. Its role has however evolved over time as people rely on it to bring about unity and promote peaceful coexistence. The religious teachings in return help to set the benchmark on what is acceptable in accordance with the church. While religious practices and beliefs may differ, its role in uniting people and spreading morals continues to play a crucial role in the sustenance of human communities.

References

Durkheim E, (2015) “Sociology” The School of Life, retrieved from,           https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z9W0GQvONKc&t=4s

Freud, S., Dufresne, T., Richter, G. C., & Pfister, O. (2012). The future of an illusion.       Peterborough, Ont: Broadview Press.

Module VI, (n.d) “Introduction to rituals”

The Dangers of Ethnocentrism in Gospel Communication

Introduction

 Ethnocentrism results in false assumptions due to cultural variances. Cultural anthropologists can be ethnocentric whenever they make use of their cultural norms to make judgments and generalizations on other individual’s lives and cultures. These generalizations usually lead to conscious bias hence impeding the missionary objectives[1]. Developing ethnocentric thoughts minimizes the accuracy and ability to interpret another person's way of life. Ethnocentrism tends to drive one into a misconception and distortion of communication between the locals and the missionaries. Primarily, ethnocentrism impedes effective communication between two or more people from different cultural backgrounds[2]. Ethnocentrism creates an umbrella attitude toward certain people which in turn affects perception and cultural norms or characteristics. For instance, the attitude and perception that one culture is better than the other often lead to discrimination. Some people claim that ethnocentrism is deeply rooted in human nature consequently leading to reluctance and even denial. It is good for people to respect, appreciate other people's differences while at the same time integrally engaging them.

Misunderstanding and Misinterpretation

 The first role of cultural anthropologists is assisting in the understanding of mission processes hence they play a crucial role in defining ethnocentrism in case they are biased. Among the first two aspects were linguistics and communication. Most of the early bunch of anthropologists had to learn the local dialect so as to interact with the locals without any language barriers. Thus, they forced themselves to learn not only the language but the local culture of the people living in those particular regions. Most of the time, these dialects did not have any written forms hence forcing the cultural anthropologists to device ways through which they would document them for future reference. The cultural anthropologist had to come up with ways of learning cultures and languages without the need for schooling. Furthermore, anthropologists collected evidence and later translated languages for other anthropologists. Therefore anthropologists can develop programs through which people can learn factual details on other communities. This helps to shape the perceptions and mapping out of foreign regions.

 At first cultural anthropologists handled languages in a self-directed arrangement hence each culture was treated differently from the other. Later on, they had to relate language and culture in order to understand other intricate issues. It was obvious- language dictated culture and culture shaped language and so forth and so on. On one level, the connection between language and culture led to communication mechanisms[3]. For instance, processing communication techniques and other forms of communication at the disposal in cross-cultural regions. This way, noticing the most common and effective forms of communication began to emerge and cultural anthropologists isolated these details for analysis. Communication affected socio-cultural situations.  This explains the emergence of communication concepts to the missioning mechanisms with considerable success in the long run. Additionally, the association between cultures creates questions on thinking processes[4]. Particular terms of a dialect influence the thoughts and ideals hence impacting the entire norms of the community. This way, cultural anthropologists are able to identify perceptions and societal norms. In simpler terms anthropologists understood the conscience of the cross-cultural people and how their thinking patterns worked in the long run. In summary, the first role of cultural anthropologists in cross-cultural missions is to understand and then interpret the language and mannerisms of the different cultures found within a particular region for the sake of streamlining and eradicating the language barriers that might hinder the core objectives of the missions.

Generation of Culture Differences

            The second factor of an anthropologist is defining the cultural differences and ensure. Mission strategists are usually concerned about the human variations brought about by cultural differences. Apart from these human variations, cultural anthropologists also encountered religious variations. These challenges forced them to come up with ways of integrating Christian values in non-Christian areas[5]. Cultural anthropologists had to find creative ways of establishing religion based on already existing cultural truths. Cultural anthropologists had to face cultural variations and find a solid foundation for their objectives. For instance, locals had different ways of building houses, spoke in various dialects, lived under different family units, possessed varying moral principles, and exhibited different values. These variations generated first-hand challenges to cultural anthropologists. This led to cultural shock. Misinterpretations emerged among missionaries’ interactions with the locals and the missionaries had to teach themselves the specific ways of life associated with certain communities. Subsequently, cultural differences led to theoretical and religious concerns. It seems like all cultures depended on providing order, and influencing a purpose-driven life. Hence, no culture is better than another. Besides, the manner used to compare and analyze cultural norms varied and was also brought to question. The missionaries also questioned if they had a right to change other people’s way of life. These questions led to cultural relativism, where all societies are at par with each other and none was evil in any way. Nevertheless, cultural relativism brought about other challenges as it compared the missionaries with the locals who they were to convert into Christianity. Thus, their role was compromised. They had to define Christianity and western culture. Turning people into Christians meant adopting the western culture of wearing clothes, application of western medication, marrying one wife, and leaving behind racial norms. Hence differentiating between western culture and Christianity was a hard task. Even though shaping the Christian message to fit into the culture was an uphill task, they had device friendly ways of dealing with these cultural differences in order to introduce Christianity without disrupting the community normal way of life[6]. One of the ways they achieved this task was by using local dialect to teach Christian principles or expressing Christian norms via culture terms. Besides, the use of traditional symbolism and routine practices helped in imparting knowledge and shaping the message without distorting cultural practices or the message itself. Moreover, the cultural anthropologists had to confirm that their message was universal and above culture or reproach. One of the theological queries emerged due to cultural differences. These are the Biblical events which occurred in particular cultural situations. Hence, shaping the Christian message so that it would have a universal appeal was at the top of the list for the cultural anthropologists. A universal message would transcend borders and pass through cultural and language barriers. Then, isolating the message to fit the needs of people within a particular region became another uphill task which the cultural anthropologists had to deal with in the long run. For instance, not all Biblical content is equally applicable to everyone. Some contemporary Christians punish adultery while some stone them. Thus, aligning cultural differences to the streamlined acceptance of Biblical messages across all the cultures was key. The cultural anthropologists had to ensure that various cultures related to the teachings and found them relevant in their day to day lives. Relating to something helped in interpretation and understanding the meaning which later eased its way into the community. It is vital to note that cultural anthropologists had to integrate Christian believes with other cultural norms in order not to judge foreign cultural norms as strange or absurd. In other words, cultural anthropologists avoided discriminating against other cultural practices or norms. In the end, relating with fundamental cultural variances maintained relationships and sustained social interactions hence helped in cross-cultural missions.

Evaluation And Manipulation of Other People’s Cultures

 The third factor was recognizing that the basic cultural differences forced them to evaluate individual cultures separately in order to bring to light the fundamental information on certain cultures[7]. Usually evaluating other people’s cultures exposes ethnocentrism. As cultural anthropologists began analyzing individual cultures, they realized that the underlying factors integrating the cultures. Each cultural part has different functionalities such as meeting certain community needs within the entire society. Thus, the holistic study of cultures impacted cross-cultural missions and ethnocentrism[8]. For example, realizing that cultures are integrative unveiled that changing culture impacted different areas differently. For instance, converting to Christian norms affected societal routines, economics, and political structures found within that specific culture. More so, one cannot predict the cultural changes that might take place due to Christianity. Therefore cultural anthropologists had to be aware of the up and downside of converting people into Christianity. Hence, they had to be concerned with all the aspects of individual's lives, or converting locals to Christianity would destroy their entire lives and drive them into extinction.

Culture Shock

To comprehend culture shock and intercultural communication challenges, the first one needs to define culture. Culture is a set of integrative systems of beliefs, emotions and values, and other connected symbols. As long one lives in the confines of his or her culture, he or she is accustomed to the practices[9]. Whenever one encounters a new culture, one becomes aware of the new customs hence chances of discrimination against the new culture are high. For example, one sees the differences in clothing, dressing, dialect, and character. Then one gets to learn the variances in values and belief systems. Cultural variation is in the middle of missionary work and the core function of missionary tasks is ministering to other people. Hence, the first danger of ethnocentrism is perceptive misinterpretations[10]. For instance, some missionaries encountered challenges while relating to some of the African people. More so, some missionaries may shudder whenever they enter into a restaurant and find other people eating without forks and spoons. In other words, humans tend to alter their behavior whenever they encounter a strange situation. This alteration leads to stereotypes and discrimination.

 The underlying cause of discrimination is human nature and the tendency to react to issues based on assumptions and emotions. Feelings may drive one to react with approval or disapproval whenever encountered with another culture. This might lead to avoidance of certain issues or manipulation of subject matters in order to fit certain perceptions. Thus, ethnocentrism takes place whenever culture variance exists[11]. For instance, Americans fear whenever they see poor people living in streets and slums while on the other hand, other people might be equally shocked to learn how the aged are isolated and placed in nursing homes. The lack of empathy sometimes leads to negativity.

Withholding Crucial Information

            Shared value systems on life make communication and societal reality possible despite the assumptions and lack of attention to detail. Shared on beliefs on reality offers individuals the rationality needed to understand ways of life. Subsequently, this might lead to premature judgments and misinterpretations on rational matters. More so, while evaluating cultures, missionaries are too quick to judge and dismiss hence leading distortion of Biblical messages. The initial assessment usually is inferior an ignorant because it depends on biased opinions. It is vital to note that ethnocentrism is at play everywhere[12]. For instance, Romans believed that they were more special and powerful than other societies. The same logic applied to Greeks and English. Thus, missionaries should always make use of polite and effective language during communication. There one thing which the Bible and science agree on and that is humans came from the same parents. Thus equality is important while preaching to other people. As stated earlier, ethnocentrisms may lead to ignoring facts on other cultures. Besides, ethnocentrism facilitates negative stereotypes application to different societies all over the world which in turn leads to disrespect and even slander[13]. Collecting information from other people’s background and cultures normally fail to give a holistic perspective on various aspects of life. In the end, this might create inaccuracies between the community members and misinform effective communication mechanisms all over the world. 

 At the center of each culture is the mutual value systems and community of individuals. Through experiences, individuals can interpret images or derive perceptions from desperate situations. The recognition of the basic social system developed sociologists and academic institutions as a venue for integrating and introducing learning opportunities for the locals for the evaluation of learning mechanisms. Hence, the evaluation of how people learn and acquire social interactions and conformity to society. The analysis of social structures helps in the analysis of several societal issues[14]. At the lowest stages of life, missionaries can study how people associate with each other. For instance, relating to locals is important for cementing relationships and receiving the message of the gospel. Thus, the structure of the society dictates the fate of new converts as they move from one phase of life into another. The missionary systems, have to be aligned to the people's perspectives and culturally recognized standards so that converts can easily transition into the normal society. The missions have to establish a relationship with locals churches and society at large. One of the most critical questions among contemporary day missionaries is structuring cultural relationships to meet the daily needs of society and the church. If harmony does not exist between the church and the society, then Christianity won’t be able to survive and transfer its values to other areas of life.

Distortion of Cultural Context

 In terms of contextual interpretation, cultural anthropologists have to communicate in ways that define the thoughts of their audience or listeners even if it means forcing false interpretations. The most important thing to take note of is the audience’s social and cultural characteristics. The missionary's statements should be filtered, interpreted, and comprehended based on the defined social and cultural identities. Besides, teaching or preaching with a certain goal in mind assists in unveiled only specified information to the audience[15]. That is, cultural anthropologists should only arouse specific emotions hence triggering only selected actions.  With one term cultural anthropologists have to ensure that their messages have a specific message and at the same time be culturally sensitive to the people. The nonlinguistic culturally influence the translation of the message into culturally appropriate messages. The cultural anthropologist must try as much as possible to express his or her words in another culture. Perhaps in the current society, Christian churches are dependent on translation and this the reason translation is important.

 In summary, most cultural anthropologists focus on various aspects of culture. Anthropologists can analyze economic activities in relation to culture to find out how various cultures use their resources within the communities. These economic resources are finances, land, and other valuable assets. Even though missionaries also use such resources, there is nothing that can be done to explore such cases further. Apart from economics, cultural anthropologists can also study political entities within the community in an attempt to clarify any messages.   Any missionary or cultural anthropologist should set aside his or her differences and objectively communicate with other people despite the language barriers. Ethnocentrism may give rise to discrimination and manipulation of people's own culture. The ability to accept other people's norms and customs helps to understand their way of life. Cultural anthologists sometimes are forced to force themselves into the lives of for the sake of creating a relationship and a rapport.

[1] Conner, Dustin. "Biblical and cultural exegesis: twin components for contextualized ministry in the great commission enterprise." (2015).

[2] Wu, Jackson. "We Compromise the Gospel When We Settle for Truth: How ‘Right’Interpretations Lead to ‘Wrong’Contextualization.”." Global Missiology 2 (2013).

[3]Hiebert, Paul G. The gospel in human contexts: Anthropological explorations for contemporary missions. Baker Academic, 2009.

[4] Hill, Rachel A. "Ethnocentrism in Short-Term Missions: Time Spent Abroad and Its Effect on Cultural Attitudes." (2013).

[5] Ralph, Anna. "The" Gospel" of Cultural Sustainability: Missiological Insights." (2013).

[6] Seltz, Gregory P. "Confessing the “Real Present Jesus”: The Power to Overcome Cultural Barriers with the Good News of the Gospel." LUTHERAN MISSION MATTERS (2016): 272.

[7]De Vries, Brian A. "Towards a global theology: Theological method and contextualisation." Verbum et Ecclesia 37, no. 1 (2016): 1-12.

[8] Alawode, Dr, Akinyemi Oluwafemi, Rev Umukoro, And Joy Eno. "Missiological Challenges Encountered By The Cross-Cultural Missionary: Man-Made Or Natural? The Way Forward."

[9] Garnica, Rebeca. "Discussion of How to Effectively Communicate the Gospel Considering Generations, Cultures, and Paul’s Biblical Example." (2016).

[10] Mavrichi, Ionut. "Bruce Malina and the Sociology of Reading Ancient Christian Texts-Elements of Method." Rev. Universitara Sociologie (2012): 7.

[11] Korstanje, Maximiliano E., and Geoffrey Skoll. "Disasters, ethnocentrism and mobilities, exploring the Film Contagion 2011." International Journal of Safety and Security in Tourism and Hospitality 1, no. 12 (2015): 1.

[12]Sanou, Boubakar. "Missiological perspectives on the communal significance of rites of passages in African traditional religions." Journal of Adventist Mission Studies 9, no. 2 (2013): 039-052.

[13] Robertson, Melva B. "FOSTERING UNITY WITHIN A GLOBAL ORGANIZATION." Journal of Biblical Perspectives in Leadership 8, no. 1 (2018): 248-253.

[14]Phiri, George Allan. Social-cultural anthropology: Communication with the African society. Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2009.

[15] Livermore, David A. Serving with eyes wide open: Doing short-term missions with cultural intelligence. Baker Books, 2012.