Essay Plan

The main purpose of the study is to explore and evaluate the current criminal justice system response to sexual assaults and prevention strategies.

• Thesis statement; The prevalence of sexual assault cases is a result of the ambiguity and complexity of the justice system.
• Paragraph one; How the police as first responders react to cases of sexual assaults (Venema, 2019).
• Paragraph two: This paragraph discusses in detail how the justice system makes it hard for victims of sexual assault to report these crimes (Johnson, H., 2017).
• Paragraph three; This paragraph explores the influence of intoxication and attire on how the criminal justice views cases of sexual assaults and the myths surrounding cases of sexual assaults (Goodman‐Delahunty, and Graham, 2011).
• Paragraph 4: Measures that can be implemented by the system to reduce sexual assaults (Meyers, K., R. 2018).
• Conclusion: Sums up the facts discussed in the body of the essay.

Annotated Bibliography

Venema, R.M., 2019. Making judgments: How blame mediates the influence of rape myth acceptance in police response to sexual assault. Journal of interpersonal violence, 34(13), pp.2697-2722.

            The author of the article Rachel M Venema is a holder of a Ph.D. and a holder of a Master’s of Social Work.  The main idea expressed by this author explores the role that police officers play as first responders to cases of sexual assault.  The argument presented by this author is driven by the negative experience and high case attrition within sexual assault cases that are reported to the police.  The data that backs up this research is obtained from a survey that included 174 officers from a police department in the Great Lake Region.  One of the main strengths of the study is that it has incorporated data on female and male police officers and data of police from racially diverse backgrounds. Limitation of study includes the fact that the results are limited to one jurisdiction, the Great Lake Region and this has a huge impact on the generalization of the results. The second limitation of the study is that the sample size is relatively small and does not even represent a majority of officers within that jurisdiction. Lastly, the extent to which attitudes influence the behavior of police officers is not tested, therefore future research should focus on exploring how attitudes influence the decision-making process of police in sexual assault cases.  

Johnson, H., 2017. Why doesn't she just report it? Apprehensions and contradictions for women who report sexual violence to the police. Canadian Journal of Women and the Law, 29(1), pp.36-59.

            This piece of research is based on real-life testimonies of women who shared their experiences, local advocates, service providers and police officers from the Ottawa Police Service department. This article explores the diverse and complex decisions women have to make when engaging the criminal justice system and the steps that the justice system takes after such complaints are launched.   This article explores the most important point of attrition which is the victim’s willingness to engage or not engage with the criminal justice system.   The author of this article explores the fears that victims have when it comes to engaging with the criminal justice system. This piece if research is important in answering the question of study since it provides answers on why victims of sexual assaults are afraid of engaging with the criminal justice system. One of the strengths of this article is that it explores the complexities that hiders a victim of sexual assault from reporting the crime.  Future areas of research should focus on areas to include the actions that can be taken to increase the willingness of women when it comes to reporting cases of sexual assault.

Goodman‐Delahunty, J. and Graham, K., 2011. The influence of victim intoxication and victim attire on police responses to sexual assault. Journal of Investigative Psychology and Offender Profiling, 8(1), pp.22-40.

            This article explores the impact contextual factors to include victim intoxication and victims ‘attire have when processing a case of sexual assault.  It examines the results of this variable in a series of sexual assault cases. This study utilizes data from 125 Detectives from the New South Wales police department.  Victims’ intoxication and attire heavily influence the decision and how police officers perceive cases of rape. This article is important in answering the question of study since it sheds light on how the criminal justice system responds to cases of rape when factors such as dressing and intoxication from substances such as alcohol are involved. The main limitation of this study is that it has not warranted topics that counteract these myths and has covered a small area of jurisdiction.

Meyers, K., R. 2018. Evaluating Sexual Assault Prevention Strategies. Campus Safety & Student Development, Volume 19, Number 04, Summer 2018, pp.81-84(4)

 The main purpose of the study is to evaluate the response of the criminal justice system in responding to sexual assaults, therefore it is important in evaluating the measures that can be put in place to curb and prevent sexual assaults. This article explores the preventive measures that can be implemented by the criminal justice system to reduce sexual assault cases.  This article presents vital information on how preventive efforts can be measured and contains information collected from other credible articles.  This article displays strengths such as the steps that trigger an investigation into a reported sexual assault incidence. Future research into this article should focus on exploring how the criminal justice system can ease the process of reporting a sexual assault.

Bibliography

Goodman‐Delahunty, J. and Graham, K., 2011. The influence of victim intoxication and victim   attire on police responses to sexual assault. Journal of Investigative Psychology and            Offender Profiling, 8(1), pp.22-40.

Johnson, H., 2017. Why doesn't she just report it? Apprehensions and contradictions for women   who report sexual violence to the police. Canadian Journal of Women and the Law,     29(1), pp.36-59.

Meyers, K., R. 2018. Evaluating Sexual Assault Prevention Strategies. Campus Safety & Student             Development, volume 19, Number 04, Summer 2018, pp.81-84(4)

Venema, R.M., 2019. Making judgments: How blame mediates the influence of rape myth           acceptance in police response to sexual assault. Journal of interpersonal violence, 34(13),        pp.2697-2722.

The Valley of the Shadow of Death, by Alexander, Gerould, and Snipes

Relating the valley to modern U.S history

Introduction

 "The Valley of the Shadow of Death" is a true-crime story and Kermit Alexander gives an account of a senseless murder of his mother, sister, and nephews.  All these incidents happened in 1983 in South Central Los Angele.  Police conducted the investigation and arrested three men.  Alexander encounters a painful experience in that he moved from a professional athlete to a victim.  He notes that South Central Los Angeles was full of segregation, crime,   and racial restrictive covenant.  The Valley of the Shadow of Death goes beyond the description of a man's adversity to explain the life of African Americans, social-political history in Los Angeles, the color of justice, racial disparities in the criminal justice system, among other issues that people of color experience in America.  The Valley of the Shadow of Death reveals a racist society that created slavery, separation, broken homes, abusive police treatment, and capital punishment.  It also reveals the Southern life, the struggles that blacks, Hispanics and Asians went through in Los Angeles.

 Black Histories of Los Angeles

 It is important to note that the settlers on Los Angles were from many multiracial groups and 26 groups were of African origin (Kun & Pulido, 2014).  The idea that Los Angeles is racially diverse helps us understand that there were relationships issues between black and whites and the hatred still exist in contemporary society.  African-origin people and Mexicans dominated until 1848 when the U.S conquested Alta California.  Mexicans working class was pushed out of the land by whites.  By 1920, many African Americans had begun to relocate to Los Angeles where they build communities despite racial hostility (Kun & Pulido, 2014).  During the Second World War, the racial landscape in Los Angeles transformed in that black southerners from other areas such as Texas, Oklahoma among other regions relocated to Los Angeles in large numbers.  There was division in race relations in other areas of the United State and the hostility toward African Americans developed in Los Angeles.  By the 1970s, there was a political and economic ideology, along with deindustrialization and neo-liberalism (Kun & Pulido, 2014).  People of color were affected by these ideologies as they caused a decrease in middle-class jobs.  Only a few numbers were employed in the few industries and they were paid low-wages.

Race and African Americans

 Alexander says that when he started sports in the 1950s, he experienced racial segregation.  For example, black players such as Ollie Matson and Burl Toler were denied bowl bid.  Blacks were only allowed to play in northern cities and they could not go to the South (Alexander et al, 2016).  If they went to the South, they were segregated since they could not share meals or rooms with other teams.  Just before the Second World War, African Americans had owned homes in Los Angles but still, they were uncertain about the future.  Nevertheless, they were free from physical violence since they lived in interracial neighborhoods and their children attended racial intermixture schools (Sides, 2006).  Despite the benefits that Africans Americans experienced, there were restrictive covenants that restricted blacks to own properties.  Thus, African Americans who owned a house were arrested.  Even though the organized labor created new policies that supported racial equality, African Americans were forced to live in poverty; they had no political representation, and worked in low-paying jobs.  During post-World War 2,   the rural black racial group moved to   Los Angele and other cities (Sides, 2006).  Los Angeles city government acted against the overcrowded neighborhoods.  Two decades after the war, African Americans improved their lives by entering into stable careers and high incomes.  Black women moved from domestic services to manufacturing jobs and office jobs.  Between 1950-1960, the rate of unemployment in black females and males decreased by 10.9% and 8.7% respectively (Sides, 2006).  However, by 1960, the industrial jobs for African Americans started to disappear and the black male started working on manual labor.  During the post-war period, there was an employment opportunity gap in that white gained more employment opportunities than blacks.  Remarkably, Shelley v. Kraemer's court decisions was against the restrictive covenants and it allowed the blacks to buy homes.  Therefore,  Shelley v. Kramer allowed blacks to integrate into communities where they found dignity and opportunities.  However, white opponents were against the integration and perceived it as a threat.  They argued that integration affected the property values and it was a path to miscegenation (Sides, 2006).  Since whites supported restrictive covenant, they used various tactics to ensure that black moved out of the neighborhoods.  The police force, estate boards, and federal government supported white efforts to exclude black.  The pressure deepened segregation and created 'hyper-segregated black Americans'.  This means that blacks in Southern California were forced to live in their neighborhoods and communities.  Blacks in Los Angles also were concentrated in certain areas.   

Color of justice

During the William trial, the court said that the murderers were given sixty thousand dollars to kill but they killed the wrong people by mistake.  Even though the defense counsel argued that the killing was a great tragedy since the killers annihilated a whole family, the defense attorney said that the killers should not be given the death penalty (Alexander et al, 2016).  The U.S criminal justice reflects on the Rodney King riots of 1992 in Los Angeles.  Long Angeles police officers beat an innocent African American man.  Africans Americans started the riot and caused mass death.  The riot by African Americans was also influenced by the recession of the 1980s that causes rampant unemployment, healthcare became unaffordable, and poverty increased (Gallagher & Lippard, 2014).  In addition, the Kerner Commission Report in 1968 stated the two unequal classes; black and white.  There was a cultural lag where black communities were alienated.  Their cultural norms were regarded as inappropriate.  South Central Los Angeles had a culture of disobedience and disturbance and this motivated the black community to demonstrate their grievances and demand for welfare benefits (Gallagher & Lippard, 2014).  Despite the grievances, the Rodney incident shows that the criminal justice system has racism and bias.  In the Rodney incident, the police officers showed racial bias toward African Americans.  The racial bias motivated police officers to use excessive force, discriminatory treatment, and harassment toward minorities (Banks,  2009).  It is evident that the modern criminal justice system has two justice systems; one for whites and another one for minorities.  The justice system shows inequality and injustice toward people of color.  Court officers treat minorities with disrespect and lack of courtesy compared to whites.

The Valley of the Shadow of Death reveals that the police system, as well as the criminal system, is full of   racial profiling (Alexander et al, 2016).  Recent research and studied have confirmed that police have negative perceptions toward the people of color compared to whites.  They use verbal persuasion, deadly force, disrespectfulness, physical force and other behaviors that show bias and violence toward minorities (Egharevba, 2017).  This means that police officers disproportionately target people of color due to their status.  For example, between the 1980s-1990s, there was a bias reporting from the media that minorities used cocaine.  Thus, police officers disproportionately target minority communities (Egharevba, 2017).  Today, racial profiling still exists not only in the societies but also in the correctional institutions where minority prisoners are treated differently. 

 Street Gangs in Black Los Angeles

 It is important to note that people from black communities went through a valley of the shadow of death and this motivated them to create street gangs to address the issues of segregation and discrimination.  In the 1940s, blacks created the Central-Vernon community where all blacks migrated after world war one (Hunt & Ramón, 2010).  Blacks who did not afford accommodation in the Central Avenue community and they were forced to live outside the neighborhood where there were racially restricted.

 It is important to note that African American culture was not associated with gangs.  However, there were many gangs in cities such as Los Angeles, Newyork, and others areas where blacks lived.  When African Americas migrated to Los Angeles in 1781, Los Angeles had tolerance over nonwhites and therefore they experienced less racial tension and they had the right to vote, right to attend integrated schools, right to win real estates, right to own homes, economic benefits, among other benefits (Vigil & Moore, 2003).  However, the benefits lasted until the 1920s when the community cohesiveness broke.  The 'Great Migration' affected the breakdown of cohesion.  The level of intra-ethnic difference was high and whites could not integrate with blacks.  Due to the population growth, there were restrictive housing covenants that placed blacks in isolated areas known as the spatial ghetto (Vigil & Moore, 2003).  Blacks were also displaced by white and Japanese in industrial jobs.  The residential segregation gave rise to the Ku Klux Klan in the 1920s.  Note that Los Angeles had restricted blacks from municipal swimming pools, beaches; they were also restricted in Pacific Electric Railroad.  Thus, the role of the Ku Klux Klan was to express the black sentiments against racial discrimination, high level of unemployment, among other issues (Vigil & Moore, 2003).  Such incidents motivated the formation of street gangs to defend themselves against white violence.  Example of South Central gangs was Slausons, Watts, Rebel Rousers, and others.  However, these gangs could not alleviate social problems such as unemployment and discrimination.  Even though they managed to work in the shipyard and aircraft industry, they could not get employment in other industries, which could offer high-paying positions (Vigil & Moore, 2003).  The discrimination heightened when the white soldiers came back from the war.  Restrictive covenants became stronger and blacks experienced hiring discrimination and housing discrimination.

 Conclusion

  In the 'Valley of the shadow of death', Alexander shared a painful story when three men murdered his loved ones.  After the incidents, things went sour as he went through the wilderness of despair.  He was isolated; he became depressed, and experienced many challenges before rebuilding his family and finding peace.  From the analysis, the story moves beyond what Alexander experienced to reveal the life of African Americans in the South.  During the Great Migration, African Americans moved from southern cities to northern cities to escape segregation and Jim Crow discrimination, racial prejudice, political intolerance, and social challenges.  However, they did not meet their expectations since the relief was temporary.  Discrimination and injustice manifested themselves in the new neighborhoods.  Hundreds of thousands of African Americans thought that they would achieve their destination.  However,   they experienced more racial incidents that manipulated them to create gangs against white violence.  African Americans valued their identity and they wanted to eliminate the racism and class factors.  The story also reveals that there were no race relations in the criminal justice system.  The police, as well as the justice system, had negative perceptions toward the people of color and they treat them with abuse and harassment due to their race, sex, among other differences.  Through the story, the reader can capture the challenges and difficulties African Americans went through to the extent of forming gangs for protecting themselves from the violence.  

References

Alexander K., Gerould Alex., & Snips Jeff. (2016). The Valley of the Shadow of Death: A Tale

of Tragedy and Redemption. Simon and Schuster

In Gallagher, C. A., & In Lippard, C. D. (2014). Race and racism in the United States: An

                    encyclopedia of the American mosaic.

Kun, J., & Pulido, L. (2014). Black and brown in Los Angeles: Beyond conflict and coalition.

In Hunt, D. M., & In Ramón, A.-C. (2010). Black Los Angeles: American dreams and racial

realities. New York: New York University Press.

Sides, J. (2006). L.A. City Limits: African American Los Angeles from the Great Depression to

the Present. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Vigil, J. D., & Moore, J. W. (2003). A rainbow of gangs: Street cultures in the mega-city. Austin,

Tex: Univ. of Texas Press.

Banks, C. (2009). Criminal justice ethics: Theory and practice. Sage Publications,

In Egharevba, S. (2017). Police brutality, racial profiling, and discrimination in the criminal

justice system.  Information Science Reference

Advantages of class physical evidence

Physical evidence can be defined as any item that can help in establishing that a criminality was committed. The point of having physical evidence is to help provide a link between a crime and its victims. There are many advantages of having physical evidence and one of them is the fact that it helps in providing an element of the crime for instance, force or fear, which helps in proving the case theory (Lyle, 2017). Physical evidence helps in either proving or disproving statements of what may or may not have transpired during the crime.

Another advantage of having physical evidence is that it helps in placing suspects in contact with the victims. Physical evidence helps in establishing the identification of the persons that are involved in the case and they can also help in exonerating innocent suspects (Lyle, 2017). Physical evidence help in corroborating testimonies and they can be used during interviews and interrogations.

Compatibility of forensic databases

If the software and the databanks that are utilized by the state agencies are well-matched, it becomes very easy for matches to be completed within the databanks (Sun et al., 2014). It has become a normal routine for all criminal case details including DNA to be documented and uploaded by forensics in the federal databases to help in any future criminal cases.  Once a crime occurs, its details are normally close referenced with any other similar crimes in the database to see if there is a connection (Sun et al., 2014). Having compatible federal agency databases helps in providing additional information that helps in further investigations, thus helping identify a perpetrator or even link individuals and crime scenes.

References

Sun, H., Li, H., Liu, C., Yan, J., & Budowle, B. (2014, April). Future directions of forensic

DNA databases. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4009716/

Lyle, D. (2017). Differentiating Class and Individual Evidence. Retrieved from

https://www.dummies.com/education/science/forensics/differentiating-class-and-individual-evidence/

1. Who produces opium, cocaine, and methamphetamine? How does it get to the target country? Who are the target countries?

            Opium, cocaine, and methamphetamine are some of the hard drugs that have been noted to have the potential of impacting the wellbeing of the majority of people, especially the young generation. As much as the consumption of these drugs are concerned, it should be realized that they are ultimately produced by various cartels that are aimed at enriching those who runs such organizations. Smuggling is one of the mechanisms that have been realized to be used as the ultimate means of ensuring that they reached the intended destination. The majority of the countries that are the prime targets are those that are underdeveloped (Wecker et al., 2010). 

2. How do you treat opiod abuse? Methods? Any local treatment centers? How do your state prisons treat those with a drug problem?

            The general administration of opiod treatment ultimately varies from one person to another. The importance of these therapeutic mechanisms that have been advanced are aimed at ensuring that a person has had the potential of stopping using such drugs.  One of the methods that have been recommended is the prescription of other drugs by the physician that has the ability of relieving withdrawal symptoms when a person stops using opiods. Ideally, in order to be in the position of treating those with the drug problem, the state prisons and health care institution aid in ensuring that a person have had the potential of controlling his or her craving (Waldman, 2011). 

3. What makes ovycontin such a powerful drug? What is it used for?

            Ovycontin is one of the highly abused drugs regardless of its positive effects. Clinical research indicates that the reason as to why ovycontin is perceived to be a powerful drug is ultimately because of the primary ingredient it contains that aid in relieving pain.

4. Is Ritalin used appropriately? Is it overprescribed?

            Ritalin is one of the stimulants that are used for the purpose of treating ADHD (attention deficit hyperactivity disorder as well as narcolepsy.  The reason as to why these drugs are not overprescribed is because once overused, they have a higher potential of affecting the brain as well as the central nervous system that ultimately controls impulses and hyperactivity underdeveloped (Wecker et al., 2010). 

                                                References

Wecker, L., Crespo, L. M., Brody, T. M., Dunaway, G., In Faingold, C., & Watts, S. (2010). Brody's human pharmacology: Molecular to clinical. Philadelphia, PA: Mosby/Elsevier.

Waldman, S. D. (2011). Pain Management E-Book. Sanders Press

Definition of theft

According to Anthony Gory, most of the internet users share music. Legal measures put in place to safeguard the entertainment industry are ineffective. Thus, music industry took upon itself to create software systems that protect music from duplication or sharing. One can only share music under agreed circumstances or terms. However, defensive technology does not hinder legal utilization of movies or music.

Do you take music from the internet illegally? Yes and no. Based on the copyright rules and regulations, issuing or procuring a patent work such as music or a movie, without the authorization of the copyright owner is illegal. For this reason, the answer can be a yes or a no. Some of the movie or song files have copyrights and others do not have a copyright. The same thing goes for burning compact discs that one has not bought. It is against the law and one can face trial.

According to patents laws, taking or downloading copyrighted music without permission is illegal. For instance, logging into a site and downloading copyrighted music without the consent of the owner is unlawful. Once a person has a copyrighted song or movie in their computer, they are in possession of an illegal item, which he or she did not purchase hence, going against the law. On the other hand, According to copyright laws, downloading songs accessible via the owner or free downloads is not against the law. For instance, logging into a website and downloading a free mp3 sample. Hence, the person needs not to purchase the song or movie since it is a free sample and has no illegality attached to it.

Recording copyrighted music or movies from the mass media is unlawful. File sharing creates unnecessary shortcuts, which facilitates the transfer of legal acquired content into the hands of another person who can then pass it on without purchasing the material. It goes without saying that recording organizations have the ability of employing cheaper and cost efficient distribution mechanisms rather than spending most of their times fighting file sharing. A client may prefer paying for affordable original content rather file sharing, which puts him or her at a higher risk of getting a virus. Some sections of the public are of the opinion that file sharing is not illegal, in some states of America, or any other country. File sharing raises some contentious issues. Nevertheless, if a person shares copyrighted music or movies with others, he or she goes against the law. At this the point, downloading and sharing material with the public becomes unlawful. Moreover, an upright thing to do is rationally thinking if the one can buy the song or movie. One can buy a renowned song in the store or at the movie theatre.

Therefore as long as the movie or song has a copyright and one does not own it, downloading the item is illegal unless free. For example, use of torrents is an illegal activity. After creating a movie or a song, and then promoting, all the stakeholders who took part in making the product want monetary gains from sales. Consequently, the creation of copyright laws to safeguard the property from exploitation that is, copying, replicating, or reselling without the consent of the owner. If a person did not purchase a copyrighted movie or music, then, downloading the content is against the law. Similarly, distributing copyrighted content in any form or via any mechanisms without permit is an illegality.

Introduction

 Evidence gathered from the public domain in the past two decades is enough to facilitate practical studies and add onto the existing concepts of victimization (Reyns, 2013, 103). Victimization theories revolve around common perspectives, life experience, and repetitive actions concepts that stand out in terms of rational thinking and empirical analysis. However, the maturation of theories of victimization meets the same serious impediments as other concepts of criminality. These include insufficient attention to dissimilarity in terms of form of crime, patterned crimes, and poor connectivity between concepts and findings. Thus, victimization ideals are widely known in the criminological fields. This paper will cover victim of precipitation, which deals the interaction between the victim and criminal and the extent to which a victim contributes to the crime. Routine activity theory states that for a crime to occur, a victim has to present an opportunity to the criminal. According to UK statistic one out of eight people becomes victims of crime due to drug and alcohol abuse. In terms of the lifestyle theory, certain sets of behavior facilitate crime, for instance, walking late to work at night.

The Concept of Victim Precipitation Theory

Just like any other criminology theories, victim precipitation entails underlying reasons that push one into crime. Although most ideas center on actions and objectives of the criminals, victim precipitation pursues insight pertaining the interaction between the target and the perpetrator of the crime (Pratt, and Turanovic, 2016, 54). This concept suggests that victim participate in the actions of the crime. For instance, in the case of CJ, he hangs around gang members thus contributing to his state of hospitalization. The victim becomes an active contributor in the criminality: first, when the victim takes part in the crime and secondly, when the victim incites the lawbreaker hence pushing the individual to carry out the criminality. These are the two aspects of the victim precipitation principle. For example, the gang, which CJ is part of, provokes a rival gang leading to a violent altercation on both sides and CJ ends up in hospital due to stabbing. In this context, CJ is an active participant in the crime as he and other gang members provoke the rival gang into the violent dispute.

Victim precipitation refers to the degree to which a victim is accountable for their victimization or the situation in which they find themselves. The theory of victim precipitation relies on the fact that even though some of the victims are totally innocent, other victims are entirely to blame for their victimization (Tseloni et.al, 2004, 107). In this manner, the theory victim precipitation recognizes that for crime victimization involves more than two individuals, that is, an offender and a victim.

Wolfgang carried the first ever research on victim participation. He was the first researcher to look at crime from both sides of the spectrum, victim precipitation in the process coining the term, ‘victim precipitation’. During the early years of his studies, Marvin Wolfgang became a famous descriptor for all conventional contact destructive criminalities such as murder and rape (Turanovic, and Pratt, 2014, 108). Application of homicide to aspects of victim precipitation restricts the theory to cases in which the victim starts a physical squabble against the perpetrator or murderer. In addition, according to the theory of victim precipitation, in case of intensified battering, sly language, or gesticulations, all are infuriated activities.

 In other words, victim precipitation muggings includes circumstances where the target operated without considering his or her own self-protection while handling his or her own finances or any other valuable items (Van et.al, 2018, 68). In a rape situation, the victim may provoke the criminal to commit the crime .In the case of CJ; he does not consider his self-protection before attacking the rival gang, hence sustains grievous injuries after the fight. In each of the applications mentioned above, there is a clear timeline as the events melt down from victims initiating some sort of action resulting to corresponding victimization.

Past researches, utilizing law enforcement reports unveiled some degree of victim participation in most of the crimes taking place on a daily basis. The level of victim precipitation fluctuates with type of wrongdoing committed (Messner et.al, 2007, 116). Projected data on victim precipitation varies from 22 to 38% among homicides, 14% for motivated attacks, 4-19% for rape cases and the remainders 11% for armed burglary are some of the criminal activities facilitated by victim participation. These statistics may be low approximations of the frequency of victim participation due to the impartial obstructive description of victim precipitation existing in some crimes that is murder, attack and the huge cases with inadequate or insufficient information (Tseloni et.al, 2004, 107). The national survey reported that inadequate data prevents experts from exploring the existence of victim participation in more than 51% cases. Nevertheless, the significance of the concept of victim precipitation clearly stands out in numerous homicide cases hence the victim or the perpetrator depends on the situation.

Routine Activity Concept

Apart from victim precipitation theory explained above, Routine activity idea suggests a macro point of view on criminality in that it forecasts on the manner in which alterations within social and economic settings impact the entire crime and victimization frequency. Cohen and Felson, Authors of the concepts assumed that illegal actions are systematically noteworthy phenomenon implying that violations are not coincidental events. Consequently, criminal activities are as a result of routine or regular behavior, individuals participate in and develop over time (McNeeley, 2015, 113). The behavior of a person can make them vulnerable or a suitable target for a calculating perpetrator. For instance 30% of homicides in UK occur after drug intoxication or drunkard behavior, which makes a person more vulnerable. In addition, routine activities concepts entail the arrangements of criminality to the daily patterns resulting from societal relations. Therefore, crime rises from usual and self-determining factors accessible to an individual.

This theory applies to CJ’s case where he voluntarily hangs around gang members through the societal interactions in his neighborhood and ends up engaging in criminal activities, which nearly cost him his life (Spalek, 2016, 188). If there is a vulnerable target in a situation that presents numerous benefits, a driven perpetrator will definitely commit a crime. CJ1 is only 16 years old, yet he hangs around dangerous gangs, consumes alcohol and drugs. Therefore, according to the theory, he is an unprotected victim.

Lifestyle Theory of CJ

 Lifestyle theory established by Hindelang et.al and routine activity pushed forward by Cohen and Felson share the same perspective on victimization. Both theories interpret victimization via the lens of a highly stirred criminal, a vulnerable victim, and the absence of guardianship (Muftić, and Hunt, 2013, 209). These two theories vary in terms of traits, which increase risk of victimization. On one hand, lifestyle theory perceives risk as a probabilistic term, for instance, specific behavior put an individual at risk of victimization than others.

            In the excerpt, CJ is only 16 years of age, with lack of proper guidance, which in turn pushes him to social interactions among gang members. There is no one advising him to stay away from trouble (Kivivuori, Suonpää, and Lehti, 2014, 206). Lifestyle theory does not depend on the relational dynamics between a target and perpetrator. Past studies revealed that even though degrees of victimization vary from one place to another, personal and situational features found in each locality remained similar. For example, CJ’s is a youth; youths are more likely to encounter victimization than members of older age group are and men are at a greater risk of victimization than their counterpart females. Victimization can differ in quantity but identical in nature and quality hence depicting lifestyle theory of victimization.

Therefore, for the successful manifestation of personal victimization in CJ’s case, three things took place: CJ’s gang intersected with the rival gang in time and space hence causing the violence and eventual hospitalization of CJ. Secondly, some cause of disagreement arose between CJ’s gang and the rival gang, creating victim vulnerability by the perpetrator hence leading to bodily harm. Thirdly, the lawbreaker was willing and capable of making actual his threats or utilization of brutal force to attain his desired results. The root of the challenge is accurately tracing all the elements that led to the CJ’s circumstance. For instance, factors which contributed to CJ’s exposure to great risk contexts and forces or aspects, which aided the meeting between the perpetrator and the target. The answer to CJ’s situation lies in his lifestyle.

The lifestyle of CJ can answer all the questions that led to his hospitalization due to grievous bodily harm. At the end of the day, his lifestyle, dictates his decision-making mechanism, and pattern activities, which in turn helps in predicting the coming into contact with his aggressor. After all, if the victim and the perpetrator never crossed roads, life style theory could not occur. It is vital to note that the lifestyle theory does not make an attempt to elaborate on social and mental undercurrents of a criminal event. Therefore are collections of patterned activities, job-related activities and leisure activities that take part in the formation of personal victimization. Lifestyle majorly concentrates on issues individuals take part throughout their daily lives. In addition, CJ’s lifestyle results from gang group adaptations to social and traditional constraints. For example, he starts smoking and doing drugs the moments he starts hanging out with other gang members. Likewise, gang members influence his beliefs and behavior hence he fights off a rival gang but unfortunately stabbed in the process.

 In conclusion, Victim precipitation refers to the degree to which a victim is accountable for their victimization or the situation in which they find themselves. Routine Activity Concept entails generalized arrangements in society, which in turn influences situations and formation of routines. Therefore, the behavior of a person can make them vulnerable or a suitable target for a calculating perpetrator. CJ’s lifestyle results from gang group adaptations to social and traditional constraints. Hence, victim of precipitation theory explains how CJ contributed to his own injuries whereas lifestyle and routine activity theory explains how the behavior and life patterns of CJ led to his brutal bodily harm. Someone lifestyle dictates his choices which in turn shape the situations they find themselves in.

References

Reyns, B.W., 2013. Online routines and identity theft victimization: Further expanding routine activity theory beyond direct-contact offenses. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 50(2), pp.216-238.

Pratt, T.C. and Turanovic, J.J., 2016. Lifestyle and routine activity theories revisited: The importance of “risk” to the study of victimization. Victims & Offenders, 11(3), pp.335-354.

Turanovic, J.J. and Pratt, T.C., 2014. “Can’t stop, won’t stop”: Self-control, risky lifestyles, and repeat victimization. Journal of quantitative criminology, 30(1), pp.29-56.

Van Ouytsel, J., Ponnet, K. and Walrave, M., 2018. Cyber dating abuse victimization among secondary school students from a lifestyle-routine activities theory perspective. Journal of interpersonal violence, 33(17), pp.2767-2776.

Messner, S.F., Lu, Z., Zhang, L. and Liu, J., 2007. Risks of criminal victimization in contemporary urban China: An application of lifestyle/routine activities theory. Justice Quarterly, 24(3), pp.496-522.

Tseloni, A., Wittebrood, K., Farrell, G. and Pease, K., 2004. Burglary victimization in England and Wales, the United States and the Netherlands: A cross-national comparative test of routine activities and lifestyle theories. British Journal of Criminology, 44(1), pp.66-91.

McNeeley, S., 2015. Lifestyle-routine activities and crime events. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 31(1), pp.30-52.

Muftić, L.R. and Hunt, D.E., 2013. Victim precipitation: Further understanding the linkage between victimization and offending in homicide. Homicide studies, 17(3), pp.239-254.

Kivivuori, J., Suonpää, K. and Lehti, M., 2014. Patterns and theories of European homicide research. European Journal of Criminology, 11(5), pp.530-551.

Spalek, B., 2016. Crime victims: Theory, policy and practice. Macmillan International Higher Education.

  Crime Investigation

Case Study 1

Is the shooting likely to be a suicide or a homicide? What facts support this?

From the case study context, the shooting was suicidal or in other words, Mary Jones committed suicide. There are apparent reasons for this opinion and they include; 

• A gun (22 revolver) was lying beside her
• She owned a gun-meaning that there is a possibility she intentionally killed herself
• A mark where the bullet entered is present
• There is a piece of background information that might have contributed to her suicidal intent (relationship issues­) (Wagner, 2016).

 How should the investigation proceed?

These evidences suggest suicidal intent but this First Information Report (FIR) is not enough and this means that there should be a crime spot analysis. The  investigating officers and  forensic technicians should  proceed with the investigation  for the purpose of  understanding the cause of death,  discover inherited disorders, promote peace of mind to the family and friends, an asset the family with life insurance,  provide  evidence to the court,  identify defective devices among other reason (Wagner, 2016). In conducting a death investigation, the death scene investigator from the federal government or county should coordinate with the medical examiner or pathologist in order to give a valid report. The named participants of crime investigation should enter into the crime scene and the first thing should be to examine the body in order to collect sufficient facts and gather evidence. They should confirm and pronounce death for the purpose of certifying death.  After confirming the death, they should secure the scene for the purpose of preserving the evidence and control the people who enter and leaves the covered section. Then, the death scene investigator should have a digital camera to take photos and record significant details that will be presented to the court. The purpose of photography is to capture the position of the body, capture the process of body removal from the scene, document the memory, share the digital images and allow the experts and jurors to review the documents (Wagner, 2016). It is important to use multiple angles while taking the photos and the photographer should also include images of all physical objects. After collecting all evidence  from the death scene, the  death investigator should establish a preliminary opinion or in other words,  he should  provide  objective analysis  by presenting  own opinion  regarding  the nature of the  death   with reference to the gathered facts and  information (Wagner, 2016).  The purpose of the preliminary opinion is to prove guilt so that the court can take further steps to proof the case.

Case Study 2

What steps should be taken immediately?

The immediate step is to arrive as the lovers' lane where the body is found. The police officers who received the report should start conducting investigations by arriving at the scene, find any suspect, and secure the scene (Wagner, 2016). They should collect all details and observations   in the scene including the condition of the victim, nature of incidence, and find potential hazards such as weapons.

Where would you expect to find leads? 

 According to the case study context, I expect to find leads from Jerry (step-brother) since he is associated with both the victim and the suspect and he was the first person to experience the event.  I can also find leads from teachers and the person who reported the matter to the police. Jerry should act as the witness and the information given will help the officers develop possible suspects.

What evidence would you expect to find?

After collecting information from the witnesses regarding the matter, the   police officers should start finding evidence on whether the man who picked Denise is the murderer. To find the suspect, the police should deal with the person who gave the report.  The reporter should act as a witness so that he can give testimony relevant to the crime (Wagner, 2016).  Even though the witness may not provide accurate information, the police officer will be able to conduct an investigation under reasonable grounds.

Specifically, how would you investigate this murder?

• Specifically, I would investigate the murder by employing the following steps:
• Arrive at the death scene and wear protective clothing
• Secure the scene by using road blocks
• Identify witnesses and interview them thoroughly. Witnesses might be passers-by, and residents
• Collect information and gather all physical evidence in the death scene
• Forward the gathered information to the jurors (Wagner, 2016).

Reference

 Wagner A. Scott. (2016). Death Scene Investigation: A Field Guide.  CRC PRESS

"What the Hell Is This?’ Officer in Viral Subway Video Didn’t Know He Had Gone Viral

 The article reports on Syed Ali, a Police officer who showed great restraint and discipline by quickly de-escalating a situation. A scuffle broke out between five homeless men and the Syed Ali, and he was able to fend off all with his baton and fit only.   A bystander captured the video and shared it on social media, attracting hundreds of thousands of views (Gold & Kulish, 2018). The officer was surprised that the video had been captured and posted on social media, a platform he does not use.

The officer was acclaimed by many people in New York and other places. His action was also applauded by some leaders, with Mayer Bill de Blasio praising him for the “extraordinary professionalism and bravery” (Gold & Kulish, 2018). A former Police Commissioner, Bill Bratton, was in agreement with the lawyer. The officer was also presented with a certificate by Chaim M. Deutsch, a Democratic Councilman from Brooklyn, as a thanksgiving for how he managed to handle the situation (Gold & Kulish, 2018). The officer was glad the video was captured since it enabled him to reconstruct the incident.

He could not recall all the detail captured in the video, due to high tension and adrenaline rush. He saw the video as important since many officers are blamed if such situations get out of hand. The officer was responding to a complaint by a woman at a subway station that the five men were disturbing her, and she was scared (Gold & Kulish, 2018). The men became aggressive when Officer Ali told them to leave.

 The article highlights a rare case of a police officer being honored for doing his work well. The public applause drew the attention of the leaders who appreciated the officer for his professionalism and courage. 

Reference

Gold, M., Kulish, N., (2018, December 26). "What the Hell Is This?’ Officer in Viral Subway Video Didn’t Know He Had Gone Viral. New York Times. Retrieved from: https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/26/nyregion/nypd-homeless-attack-video.html?rref=collection%2Ftimestopic%2FPolice

Crime strategy

Crime Strategy Meetings

             When compiling data on crime, accurate data is needed in order to understand the illicit activities and implement the best policing strategies. However, there are possible measurement errors that are made and these errors may lead to discrepant results.  Example of measurement errors is response error and imputations error (Pepper & Sullivan, 2010). Response error means that when compiling data, I may misreport information. In other words, I may present information that is different from the actual opinion.  For example, the number of drug users may differ from the data collected by the National Crime Victimization Survey. To address these errors, I may encourage open-ended questions where the members would give more thought about the issues. Before presenting the data, I may avoid presenting data that have short collection period. The second measurement error is imputation errors. This means that when compiling the data, I may miss some important information and prefer to use data from the previous record (Pepper & Sullivan, 2010).  To address the measurement error, I would use multiple imputations to replace the missing values and eliminate the uncertainty and improve the validity.

In discussing the issue of crime reduction, I would use the geographic information system to understand criminal activity. Geospatial technology is the best method that will help identify the probable areas and implement the best police intervention (Wang, 2005). The system will help in understanding the prime location, the victim, and the offender. By analyzing this geographical information, it will be easier to implement strategies, programs and reduce crime.  The geographic information system will help understand the areas where crime is concentrated and where police resources are highly needed.  By using forward data mapping, the police department will benefit by understanding the crime areas and thereby reduce the time and operating costs (Wang, 2005). Using the system, I will understand the real incidents and provide quicker responses to the affected areas.

References

Pepper, J., Petrie, C., & Sullivan, S. (2010). Measurement error in criminal justice data.

Handbook of quantitative criminology (pp. 353-374). Springer, New York, NY.

Wang, F. (2005). Geographic information systems and crime analysis. Hershey, PA: Idea Group

Pub.

Criminal Law

mala in se is a crime that is inherently evil because it is against the moral principles, superior law and the law of nature whereas mala se prohibitum is a crime that is prohibited by the positive law or human-made law (Wellman, 2017). Example of mala in se crime is murder. According to the moral principle of utilitarianism, murder is morally wrong since it does not maximize happiness. When a criminal commits the crime of murder, he or she prevent happiness and enjoyment that the victim could experience in the future. God, the author of the law of nature forbids murder and commands that human beings should have a moral character (Wellman, 2017). Example of mala se prohibitum is the violation of traffic laws and in specific, driving while intoxicated. The latter is a criminal offense that is against the law and it fits in the mala se prohibitum because it is prohibited by a legislature.  It is not inherently immoral to drink alcohol because when the driver drinks alcohol, he or she may behave virtuously and possess the self-control in driving. However, the statutory law prohibits driving while intoxicated to maximize safety (Wellman, 2017).  Drivers who violate the law face severe consequences such as fines and jail.

Battery is touching someone with unlawful intent.  The punishment requires probation or a year in jail.  I oppose the court's opinion and argue that battery is not a crime of violence. This is because a person may touch another person unintentionally. The court should not pass case law in this offense but it should provide the defendant with a prohibitory injunction. The latter means that the court should employ fairness and good faith and create a legal relationship between the two parties (Scheb & Scheb, 2008).  The court should also forbid the offender from repeating the action and manage his or her behaviors.

References

Wellman, C. H. (2017). Rights forfeiture and punishment. New York Oxford University Press

Scheb, J. M., & Scheb, J. M. (2008). Criminal law and procedure. Belmont, CA: Thomson

Wadsworth.

Compstat and Cleveland Gang Prevention Program

            COMPSTAT has important future plans and the most effective plans are advancing innovations and technology, and using predictive policing. Technology and innovation will have positive implications in law enforcement in American since police agencies will have the ability to identify problems, use limited resources, and implement effective solutions to combat crimes.  With innovation and technology, the law enforcement agency will use the intelligence-led policing where they will collaborate with the community in sharing information and fighting crime (Police Executive Research Forum, 2013). Intelligence-led policing will allow the police agency to conduct a holistic investigation, assess the problem, create measurable goals, and implement tactics and strategies to combat the crime.  Another important future implication is that technology and innovation will enable the police agency to employ smart policing and this will enable them to use evidence-based tactics and practices in their operations. Smart policing will help them use test interventions, share knowledge with the community, focus on areas with high concentration of crime and use the most important strategies and techniques (Police Executive Research Forum, 2013). The law enforcement agency will also bring positive future implications through the use of evidence-based policing which focus on the available evidence in order to understand the nature of the problem, implement policing interventions and evaluate the effectiveness of the initiative. 

The second future plan that will bring positive implications is the use of predictive policing.  The role of the law enforcement agencies is not only to combat crime but also to   prevent crimes from reoccurring. In the future,  the probability of crime to reoccur  will be  zero  since the predictive  policing will allow the police agency to combine  analytical techniques, evidence-based  interventions, power of information, intelligence-led policing and problem-oriented policing in predicting crimes, preventing crime from reoccurring, and  promote public  safety (Police Executive Research Forum,2013). 

 A city that is plagued with loosely organized gangs is the San Antonio. The primary cavities of these gangs are drug dealing and in specific heroin and cocaine.  The gangs do not commit these illegal activities an organized group but they form subgroups (Kontos, Brotherton & Barrios, 2003). Gangs also commit serious crimes such as homicides, robbery, and theft.  The main reasons as to why the city has violent gangs and a higher rate of crime is new immigrants and rapid population growth, and socioeconomic challenges such as distressed neighborhood, unemployment, high poverty, and income disparity (Kontos, Brotherton & Barrios, 2003).  Young people are victims of violence in San Antonio city due to lack of education, employment, and poverty. These factors influence them to engage in criminal activities to make money.  New immigrants are terrible people as they have increased the rate of crime and violence in drug dealing (Kontos, Brotherton & Barrios, 2003).  As the chief of police in the San Antonio city, the best prevention strategy that I would implement to combat crime are focused deterrence strategy and problem-oriented policing. In the focused-deterrence strategy, I will target the criminal behavior and the offenders, cooperate with law enforcement agencies and the community in developing response and provide social service to the offenders such as education and employment (Kontos, Brotherton & Barrios, 2003). Second, I will use the problem-oriented policing that is based on identifying the problem, implementing a plan of action, offer a solution, and evaluate whether the implemented solutions are effective in reducing crime in the city (Kontos, Brotherton & Barrios, 2003). these strategies are effective since they will not only focus on crime but they will also assess the risk factors and implement individual, family and community prevention programs to help young people live a productive life.

Reference

Kontos, L., Brotherton, D., & Barrios, L. (2003). Gangs and society: Alternative perspectives.

New York: Columbia University Press.

Police Executive Research Forum. (2013). Compstat: Its origins, evolution, and future in law enforcement agencies. Retrieved from: https://www.bja.gov/Publications/PERF-Compstat.pdf

Community policing

Crime-Reduction Strategies

             In the past, the police department has been using the standard model in reducing crime, disorder, and fear.  This model focus on traditional law enforcement where the police agencies concentrate on enforcing the law, arrest, and punishment for controlling crime. This model is criticized in that rather than promoting public safety, it is concerned with the allocation of police services (Weisburd & Eck, 2004). However, the article has provided new innovations that are effective in crime reduction.  Recent innovations have come up with strategies that are effective in reducing crime and that are beyond the traditional model of policing. The first strategy is hot-spots policing. This is a new approach that aims at preventing and reducing crime by focusing on a specific geographical area or targeting a specific area where the level of crime is high and locating resources in these areas to combat crime (Weisburd & Eck, 2004.  Hot-spot policing relate to crime reduction effectiveness in that as police concentrate on one area where crime such as drug offenses and property crime is high, police are able to offer tailored responses such as increasing patrol visits, disrupting situational dynamics and arresting offenders.

 The second strategy is Problem-oriented policing- this strategy is beyond the traditional model of policing as it aims at focusing on specific problems and developing strategies to deal with the identified problem. The practices are beyond the traditional law informant powers as police need to identify the root cause of the crime, implement interventions and apply community resources and power from civil statutes (Weisburd & Eck, 2004). Problem-oriented policing is related to crime reduction effectiveness in that police employ a problem-solving model which is based on identifying the problem, analyzing the factors that lead to the occurrence of the problem, implementing interventions and assessing if the intervention worked.

In dealing with the crime of burglary, I would employ the principles of problem-oriented policing that are based on focusing on the problem.  In using the problem-oriented policing, first, I would identify the crime (burglary), investigate the factors that cause the occurrence of the crime, implement interventions to address the factor that cause the crime and assess the value of the implemented responses (Weisburd & Eck, 2004). These different forms will help reduce crime since I will focus on the array of things such as the offender, the place, the victim and the factors that contribute to the crime. Identifying the problems, consequences, and frequency, figuring out why the problem occurs, selecting a response and evaluating whether the response worked is all that I need to reduce crime.

Reference

Weisburd, D., & Eck, J. E. (2004). What can police do to reduce crime, disorder, and fear?. The Annals of

the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 593(1), 42-65.