The Crime of Conspiracy

Introduction

The crime of conspiracy is of mutual agreement between two or more persons to perpetrate a criminal activity. Conspiracy is a crime of itself even if the criminal acts planned are not completed. The law can pass a sentence in some of the states based on conspiracy.    

There are many kinds of crimes of conspiracy that criminals engage in such as drug trafficking and other illegal activities (McCord, McCord & Bailey, 2012). Those people involved in the act of conspiracy in any crime may face conviction for both conspiracy and the crime if they go through with the agreement between the parties involves them participating in what they planned to accomplish (Silver, 2008). If people conspire and have difference in agreement it may lead to committing more than one crime. This happens when parties have different ideas like for instance in conspiring to commit murder in cold blood. The groups involved in the act may have ideas that differ on how to go through with activity and this will lead to different ways of handling the situation. As a result it might lead to committing more than one crime. For parties to conspire together they must have the same interests or goals in conspiring for any crime but still it can happen that they are different in agreements (Silver, 2008). In conclusion, the law is against conspiracy and thus making it a crime that can be convicted. This shows conspiracy as a crime which can lead to imprisonment of an individual. The weight of conspiring is taken to be same as that of committing a crime.

References

McCord, J. W. H., McCord, S. L., & Bailey, C. S. (2012). Criminal law and procedure for the paralegal: A systems approach. Clifton Park, NY: Delmar Cengage Learning.

Silver, J. (2008). The crime junkie's guide to criminal law: From Law and order to Laci Peterson. Westport, CT: Praeger.

Internet crime prevention

Introduction

Internet crime is an act of committing illegal activities using the internet.  Internet connections have affected most of the population in whole world.  In early 1994 internet was accessed by about 2 billion users.  Internet have benefited many people in many ways such as communicating, learning and other many ways that are profitable.  Unfortunately criminals took advantage of the internet and the found a way to locate their victims.  Asia has the leading internet crime level according to Shiply (Shipley 2014 et al).  Cybercrimes can be prevented from being committed by enforcing laws that restrict internet use and regulate the amount of data that people are supposed to access. Organizations are made by the government to investigate those criminals that use the internet to perpetrate crimes.  Such institute includes Federal bureau of investigation (FBI in USA) and many others (Shipley 2014 et al).  This institute enhances investigations to ensure that those engaged in illegal internet dealings are brought forward to face the law and justice is done to the victims.  The internet is also used in advertisement where ‘sexual materials are posted and accessible with ease.  It does not require physical appearance but everything is found on the websites.  Materials like photos, semi-naked pictures and other sexual exposures which are against the laws are well secured to avoid collision the law enforcers (Mackey 2013, et al).  The law is against those who try to exploit people’s privacy by blackmailing them using their sex life.

To avoid the threats in the internet, warnings are given to the internet users who frequently use the internet to do business and other activities. They are advised to use websites that are secure from criminals to reduce loss that might encounter when their accounts are hacked or worse (Coester 2012).  Communication through this mode should be monitored so as to check for terrorism plans made by criminals.  Most criminal communication are done through the internet and even illegal money transfers that are wired to suspicious accounts.  This helps law enforcers like police to track of the law breaker and they get to catch them.   These actions of terror such as purchase of armory that could be used in terrorist attacks (Nikbay 2007, et  al).  Sometimes police use their agents by giving them fake identities so as to infiltrate a criminal organization and interact with the gang members. This gives police or any other law enforcers an opportunity to get information about criminal activities planned and the people involved in those acts.   Sex predators and child abusers, who are inhuman enough to try to hurt others, are lured out by the secret agents pretending to be part of their operations.   This agents give information secretly to the authorities about the place where illegal operations are supposed to take place and they are busted by the police in the act.

There are many criminal activities that are involved with in the internet which can be prevented if the right personnel’s takes action.   The government should ensure that no illegal activities  that are done in the website networks available  does not  go without dealing  with those accountable accordingly.

Reference

Shipley, T. G., & Bowker, A. (2014). Investigating internet crimes: An introduction to solving crimes in cyberspace.

Mackey, D. A., & Levan, K. (2013). Crime prevention. Burlington, Mass: Jones & Bartlett Learning.

AIF, Coester, M., Ekblom, P., Marks, E., & Deutscher Präventionstag. (2012). Contributions from the 4_1hnt_1hnh and the 5_1hnt_1hnh Annual International Forum 2010 and 2011 within the German Congress on Crime Prevention. Mönchengladbach: Forum-Verl. Godesberg.

NATO Advanced Research Workshop on Terrorist Operations, Nikbay, O., Hancerli, S., & North Atlantic Treaty Organization. (2007). Understanding and responding to the terrorism phenomenon: A multi-dimensional perspective. Amsterdam: IOS Press

Crime theory

            Criminology that is based on movies shows the modern analysis of the crime theory and its description in the Hollywood movies.  The main aim of this topic is to make the crime theory pleasurable and known while reviewing the criminology in the matter.  Accepting the power of images to prepare and shape the way we think while given the huge stress on emotional features on the movies helps the readers explore the contrast between the academic and the popular criminology (Santos, 2012). 

            Based on the movie Crime theory and popular culture, Criminology is the hard work in the culture and culture becomes the hard task based on criminology (Rafter & Brown, 2011).  This shows how the crime theory tends to reject cultural description of crime though it is the huge public position in which the matter about crime occurs. Criminologists who use movies as a criterion for discussion fail to theorize the connection of academic and the scholarly projects.  Because popular cultures dialogue lacks the crime theory for understanding crime, it recognizes that crime plays a major role in the public awareness and that crime movies address many cultural fears unavailable in the scientific writing.  By showing the experiences that cause criminality, movies reveal how the values and feelings shape the criminal behavior and as an ensuing policy (Rafter & Brown, 2011).

            Rafter and Brown argues that criminology can connect the gap between academic studies, culture and force criminologists to accept the movie as a powerful resource of culture that needs to be rapidly understood and theorized.  This change can improve understanding of the founded theories but the criminology has the ability to advance criminology borders to enable questions about the happening of the criminology (Rafter & Brown, 2011). 

            Many chapters in the movie are chronologically prepared to the theoretical advancements and focuses on specific criminology theory as a main illustration of the movie.  Each chapter illustrates the theory’s main points and describes the social approach that they were originally developed, and give a historical approach of the theory’s development.  The outline of the chosen movie gives the readers a common narrative before an example shows and increases the theory aspects.  Reviews draws upon the others while similar movies show the ways in which they contribute to the growth or expansion of a specific theoretical approach.  The author’s intention in the movie is to show the main structure and format of the film. From different approaches depending on the theory and the movie review, the authors of the movie urges the readers to question, “How explanations of crime generated by popular culture coincide with those of formal criminology (Rafter & Brown, 2011).”

            Rational choice theory as described in the movie is the oldest criminology approach and starts the discussion of the movie’s most dependable explanations of the criminal behavior and the main actor makes a calculated choice to engage in the crime.  Billy the definitive movie’s character demonstrates the cost and the benefits of the crime.  The central character, Insurance salesperson, Walter, weighs pleasure based on man and woman against the interests of life of other people.  In choosing crime and self-awareness, the significance of the classical theory makes him punished (Rafter & Brown, 2011).

            The next chapters focus on the people’s failings to explain criminality while reviewing the biological theories and the psychological approaches.  The movie depicts biological theories, as camera-friendly.  Frankenstein shows a stunning analysis of the criminal structure including the servant with a hump and the offender who is a monster.  The chapter shows the power of the moviemaking to avoid reductionism and illustrates how the criminal behavior can be a product of complex psychological factors.  However, many sociologists analyze biological and psychological illustrations of criminal behaviors, while these theories address the issues that sociology cannot and creates a connection directory of the movie to help fill a gap in the criminology text (Rafter & Brown, 2011). 

            The other chapters of the movie assess the criminological theories and the criminal manners based on social factors.  Chapter 5 shows the social incompetence theory’s focus with the cities and the neighborhood influences. The taxi driver depicts both the theory’s interest in the city setting and the immersive research methods. Specific types of strain theory are in chapter 6 but the focus applies to the review of the complexity of the organizational strain theory.  This shows the meaning of crossing the borders between the normative and the socially illegal.  Finally, chapter 7 focuses on the social learning theories and the differential connection that has become a movie clip, such as the subculture theories of crime (Rafter & Brown, 2011).

            The next section of the book includes the critical approach in criminology and not the admired theory.  The author summarizes the critical theories and connects them with excellent and groundbreaking movies, the conflict theory and the feminist criminology.  These chapters show the mainstream of criminology’s venerable assumptions and raises questions about how crime becomes social through those in control based on race, class and gender.  The final chapter includes the analysis of the life course theory that follows the criminal behavior across the real life.  The chapter also views the linked areas of the developmental criminology and resistance.   Several movies shows the key points in each and the movie highlights the common interest in crime and the approaches of criminality (Rafter & Brown, 2011)    

Conclusion

            People may argue on the author’s choice if theoretical and movie connections, but do not get the power of the beauty of it.  Therefore, I do not agree with the author, as not all crimes explain one theory, nor the movie can do it.  Movies presume more than one approach view that can draw many theoretical approaches which is an achievement that is complex in the scholar publications.  Crime theory is unusual analysis of movies and their connection with crimes appears through the field of popular criminology.

Reference

Rafter, N. H., & Brown, M. (2011). Criminology goes to the movies: Crime theory and popular culture. New York: New York University.

 Retrieved from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=evlOnd88fPo

Santos, R. B. (2012). Crime analysis with crime mapping.                  

Patrol Strategies

            In order for any crime to occur based on the crime triangle, there must be the present of time and place, offender and the target who is the victim. When the offender meets the victim in a given place at a specified time this implies that an offense will take place (Rivero & Pepper, 2015). The present of the victim in the location and time acts as the motive for the offender to conduct an offense as the time and location offer both the means and opportunity for crime to occur. This implies that a crime cannot be present without the victim, location, time or the offender each contributes as either an opportunity, means or motive (Rivero & Pepper, 2015).

            Foot patrol is characterized by convenience based on the fact that the officers can access almost every part of their patrol region. However, it is a risky one since the officers are exposed to dangers of sites that are well known by offenders and they might use this to attack those (Roberts, 2003). In addition, foot control lacks the ability to carry adequate resources as it depends on human energy. On the other hand, automobile patrol is fast in patrolling but lacks adequate mobility since some areas cannot be accessed by cars and motorbikes tends to be riskier due to lack of enough protection. The police departments can combine both foot and automobile control in increasing patrols effectiveness in that the division can be done evenly based on the ability of each strategy to enhance both safety of the officers and combat crimes (Roberts, 2003).

            Automobile patrol can be implemented for quick responses and effective access of all areas in the patrol regions by involving automobiles like motorbikes which holds more mobility and can allow the officers to carry more safety equipment’s. In addition, this strategy can be used in offering protection to officers on foot patrols.    

            References

David A. Rivero, & John P.Pepper. (2015). Proactive Patrolling through the Use of Patrol Scripts. Pdf

Roberts, A. R. (2003). Critical issues in crime and justice. Thousand Oaks (Calif.: Sage publications.

The Root Cause of Sentencing Disparity in Crime

Introduction

White collar crimes and the related sentencing have in the recent years been discussed frequently.  The subject of white collar crimes sentencing in comparison to other crimes raises contradicting arguments. It is apparent that white crimes happen almost as often as other criminal offenses in the modern society. In fact, the white collar crime is considered to be among the most costly crimes as an industry characterized by billions of dollars (Van, Benson & Cullen, 2016). White collar crimes are on the rise as compared to other violent or street crimes since the sentencing and the penalties standards are lower (Van, Benson & Cullen, 2016).  White collar crimes are accounted to be nonviolent and therefore they are treated distinctively as compared to other offenses which are characterized by violence. However, some white collar crimes appear to be more severe than street crimes based on the public’s perception. White collar crime sentencing and violent crime sentencing are different as white collar crime sentencing is more lenient due to the social acceptability while violent crime sentencing is more severely punished and carry greater social stigmas.

White collar crimes can be described as the crimes that are performed by individuals with a higher social identity or high-status formal occupation. This, therefore, refers to nonviolent crimes that are motivated by finances that are mainly committed by government professionals and business operators. In reference to criminology law, white collar offense a crime that is committed by an individual of respectability and high status socially in his or her occupation course. On the other hand, a violent crime can best be described as an offense where the offender utilizes or threatens force upon the victims.  This involves offenses in which the violent act can best be categorized as objectives like murder and other crimes where violence is the mode to the end (Van, Benson & Cullen, 2016).  The occurrence of a violent crime does not necessarily mean that weapons are used since it can occur without. Street crime is a public place the loose term in regard to any criminal offense. Streets crimes involve robbery or mugging and thefts against the victims that are conducted in the streets in that the properties are snatched but the victims are not subjected to any kind of assault.

Street crimes and white collar offenses are both categorized as planned or intentional and they are devised in a manner that they affect the victims in a negative way while benefiting the offenders. In general street crime appears to be grounded on more violence as compared to white collar offenses. Nevertheless, white collar offenses hold more devastating effects both financially and emotionally when compared to street offenses which have similar but less concentrated effects but is also a depiction of negative physical implications as well. The penalties that surround both street and white-collar offenses tend to be similar forms of punishments but the commitment and the time duration are highly versatile. In that, the most common penalties for conducting both white collar and street offenses are home detention, large fines, prosecution cost, community confinement, restitution, imprisonment and supervised releases. The punishment of long prison sentences for street crimes does not fit the crime since the damages caused are less and the stolen items are normally of lower value. On the other hand, lessened prison sentences for the white collar crimes do not fit the crime since the sentences tend to avoid the penalties that involve life sentences. Considering that the white collar offenses involve fraud of billions of money that affect the life of company’s and that of individuals the crime does not fit the crime. Violent crimes are highly penalized which leads to incarceration yet both white and violent offenses causes almost similar damages.

Social Influence

The criminal system of justice is obligated at offering protection both to the offenders and victims regardless of the socio-economic position. The sentencing of white and violent crimes presents a perception that the system prioritizes the superior race and those in high socio-economic positions. While comparing violent, street and white-collar offenses it is apparent that they all cause severe effects on the society and the involved individuals. Street and violent offenders appear to be from inferior socio-economic ranks in general as compared to white collar offenders (Swan, 1982).  Unlike most of the unemployed violent and street offenders, white collar offenders are usually characterized with positive career identities.  Violent and white collars crimes should be accounted in similar ways in regard to sentencing because they are all associated with detrimental impacts despite the fact that street or violent crimes instills fear on the victims and can lead to distressing deaths (Swan, 1982). On the other hand white collar offenses can also create deaths, however, in most instances, it results in emotional and financial undesirable effects.  This, therefore, leads to the differences in the sentencing of both white and violent crimes based on the effects caused and how the offenses are committed.

The sentencing by the criminal justice has created the thought that the law is normally violated by the blacks thus categorizing the black race as a criminal one. This is normally depicted by the exercises by police officers and their way of enforcing the law by only targeting the inferior, powerless and low social and economic status people (Swan, 1982). This is usually the case since their offenses are obvious and can be accessed easily, assess and lead to fast prosecution and incarceration because they are represented by weak legal defenses.  In most cases, imprisonment is the imposed sentence on the black criminals based on the desire of the state to subject control to the lower class people and utilize them in the prison sector that benefits the state. From the recent statistics, black offenders hold the first position in regard to comparing the number of persons that are imprisoned per race. The incarceration rate depicts that the minority groups who are usually from low social economic status are the highest in imprisonment. This, therefore, shows that the criminal system of a judge is characterized by the highest form of racial discrimination. The effectiveness of the justice system can only be achieved with the changing of the dominating social and political organizations policies that tends to be race based and cruel to the poor minority groups (Swan, 1982).

The sentencing of white collar offenses is however considered to be favoring the offenders rather than the victims since other offenses are heavily fined with prolonged sentences which result in huge societal effects (Swan, 1982). Families of the violent offenders are affected the most since they are denied the opportunity to relate with them with the long sentencing and huge penalties.  White collar offenses are highly stigmatized in the society because they are considered to be prioritizing those from the high social position. This is because violent crimes are conducted by unemployed and low social positions persons which create the stigma as the society tends to believe that the justice system is usually in favor of the wealthy. White and violent crimes are all intentional because they are designed for a set of target victims. However, white collar offenses are planned and take much time to occur and this means that more victims as compared to the violent offenses are affected but the potential threat is grounded on emotional stability and financial struggles (Swan, 1982).  On the other hand, street and violent crimes present emotional, physical, mental as well as financial threats which can end up threatening lives and causing injuries.

Despite the fact that white collar offenses are not perceived as violent in comparison to a murder offense they lead to major damages. In that, the affected persons or rather fraud victims are subjected to both physical and emotional damages which can be categorized as a severe crime (Van, Benson & Cullen, 2016).  Theft or burglary as a violent crime leads to the loss of most items such as money that can be replaced in the short run, however, fraud leads to the loss of identity and individual’s livelihood which may not be regained. There are very few white collar offenders who have been subjected to life sentence for stealing billions of dollars thus affecting the economy and the society in general. In this context, it can be said that white collar crimes sentencing is more lenient on punishments while other crimes are fast in punishing, fining and incarcerating offenders (Van, Benson & Cullen, 2016).

Punishment, Fines, and Incarnation Rates

Offense Level Calculation

The determination of a crime as either felony, misdemeanors or severe offenses in the state are determined by the damage caused, time, place, the means involved in offending and whether it is violent of a nonaggressive offense (Van, Benson & Cullen, 2016).  Violent crimes are usually categorized as a felony because they assert safety concerns, financial constraints as well as emotional risks.  On the other hand, white collar offenses are just crimes because they are based on both financial and sensational concerns without safety issues.  Both crimes are aimed at harming the wellness of the victims while protecting that of the offenders.  The levels of crimes are established by assessing the effects as well as the acquired means in committing the offenses.

Criminal history effects sentencing

Judges and not juries are involved in the determination of a crime’s punishments since the jury’s makes recommendations.  Most of the crimes are counted in statutes and the provisions that establish specific crimes leads to the identification of proper punishments. With the provision of the possible punishments ranges the judge will then make considerations or either opting for provoking or mitigating adoption in determining the category of the punishments. The factors that are normally considered are whether the offender holds any criminal history, if he was the primary offender, whether the offense was committed under increased individual’s stress, whether it was violent and resulted in the hurting of anyone and whether the offender was cruel or destructive to the specified victim. This, therefore, implies that if the offender has a history of crime the sentencing is aggravated based on the fact that they are used to breaking the state’s laws (Van, 2011).

Social Acceptance and Social Norms

It is apparent that the individual’s perception of white collar offenses has shifted in the society today.  From the conducted survey by Antwerp, (2011), the general public recognizes white collar crimes to be equally offensive similarly to street crimes and other considers them to be more serious since they tend to affect more people.  The public perception transformation may have been accomplished by the recent concentration of the media in uncovering public figures frauds incidences. The public holds that the offenses are similar since they lead to financial loss, emotional trauma, and may result in death. The fact that the offenders of white crimes do not utilize force does not justify they actions since they acquire more from the victims as compared to the strict offenses and may lead to more effects to the affected persons in recovering their livelihood and status (Van, 2011).

White collar criminals are treated in a more fairly manner in the 21st century as compared to street level offenders. Social positions play a significant function in influencing sentencing inequalities. In that, considering the recent government and corporate fraud scandals, the offenders are subjected to high penalties and low sentencing with avoidance of life sentences as compared to the violent offenders (Slyke & Bales, 2012).  It is indicated that despite the operation of the justice system under designed guidelines that are aimed at lowering disparities, it is apparent that white collar criminals are given even fairer sentences although the decision varies based on the kind of crime under the particular category.  The sentencing seems to be considerate of the socio-economic positions and the value of the offense (Rackmill, 1992). The victims of white crimes are usually the society and the corporate while the offender’s wellness is protected.  The white offenders are highly aware of their actions as unethical and they ensure that the victims are induced which allows them to commit the crimes voluntarily and act that is realized after the damages have been caused.  This is usually the efforts that are painted by the offenders to ensure that their offenses do not lead to categorizing them as criminals.  It appears that the sentencing of the cases has resulted in the inconsistency of the general public perception (Slyke & Bales, 2012).

Criminal behaviors are against the American social norms since the behaviors are a major violation of the state’s law that can be considered as deviated (Shapiro, 1990). The occurrence of crime is therefore considered to be against the accepted standards in the society and therefore the public views both street and white offenses as equals since they violate the standards and laws that govern morals in the society.  In reference to white collar offenses, the sentences are more based on formalizing the crime rather than the criminals.  In that, the sentence is done on the basis of considering the crimes as a formal occurrence that should not be categorized as major offenses.  The offenders based on their formal occupations ensures that their offenses are also formalized.  This is unethical in regard to social norms since no crime is formally based on the fact that they lead to damages (Shapiro, 1990).

Conclusion

The disparity amid street and white-collar crimes punishments is apparent. White collar crime sentencing and violent crime sentencing are different as white collar crime sentencing is more lenient due to the social acceptability while violent crime sentencing is more severely punished and carry greater social stigmas. Violent crimes are characterized by heavy penalties that are normally characterized by life sentences while white crimes are fairly judged by considering them as formal. This raises a public view that the justice system views the blacks as the primary victims based on their socio-economic status and inability to afford well equipped legal defenses.  The public considers white crimes as equals of street crimes a concern that should be addressed by changing the oppressive and racial justice policies.

            References

Rackmill, S J. (1992). Federal Probation. Volume: 56 Issue: 2. Pp: 26-33. Pdf

Shanna V. Slyke, William D. Bales. (2012). Punishment & Society. Pp. 217-246. Vol 14. Issue 2.

Shapiro, Susan P. (1990). “Collaring the Crime, Not the Criminal: Reconsidering the Concept of White-Collar Crime.” American Sociological Review, vol. 55, no. 3,, pp. 346–365. www.jstor.org/stable/2095761.

Swan, L. A. (1982). Incarceration Rates - Blacker than White. NCJ O86405. United States, 1982. Print. Pdf

Van, A. V. (2011). Streets versus suites: Public perceptions about the seriousness of white-collar crime.

Van, S. S., Benson, M. L., & Cullen, F. T. (2016). The Oxford handbook of white-collar crime.

Transnational Organized Crime

    Though Japan is perceived to have a low crime rate, there is a group that is known as the YAKUZA an elected group with power as they work for the government. Urban street gang policed their own neighborhood and it is believed that they were paid by the Feudal Lords so that they could offer laborers. There is currently no mutual relationship between the yakuza and the Japan police officers. Therefore there has been a rise in the police violence against the yakuza with intensified raids of the yakuza officers as well as the yakuza businesses. This has resulted in an increase in the arrest of the seniors rather than the street level gangsters and a raise in the abstraction of the yakuza profits. This has resulted in security instability in Japan as they yakuza eradication policy has been strongly advocated for while there is a strong rebellion and campaigns from the anti-yakuza has been implemented. Organized crimes therefore in the US are no longer an issue to do with the mafia but rather the FBI is tasked with the role of looking at these organized crimes (Madsen 2009).

    Cybercrime is rapidly growing in the sector of crime.  Criminals are largely exploiting the speed, convenience as well as the obscurity of the internet so as to be able to consign to a varied range of criminal actions that has no borderlines. The society concern about these crimes is significant to them since there is no impact on the individual. Another reason as to why the concern is not taken seriously is the fact that when these crimes are reported by the news the offenders are majorly unidentified and thus are living in an alien nation out of the hands of the US bureaucrats.

References

Madsen, F. (2009). Transnational organized crime. Routledge.

Criminal Activities of Gangs and Terrorism

            The city that I personally selected is not yet recognized as a gang issue. However, one additional criterion that I would suggest to umpire the being of a gang contained by a city is homicides. Thus if the crime rate has been low or it majorly focused on one of the areas such as in drug trafficking or rather a prostitution, and then all of a sudden a homicide case occurs, I strongly believe that this would be a warning that would need to raise an alarm. It is evident that most of the attacks from the gangs are usually fights over a given territory and thus in committing a homicide on one of the gang members would be a form of message delivery or rather retaliation (Hess 2014).

            The 9/11 commission report had a core influence on the FBI as well as the CIA in relation to the counterterrorism activities. This report, therefore, assisted both the agencies to start working collectively and helps them to prioritize their search behind any occurrence of an attack. At the start, the FBI had information systems that were poor as the systems limited them to the access that they really needed in their investigation (Kean & Hamilton n.d.).  Thus they were mostly unable to identify potential suspects or missing evidence in the documentation where the suspects of the case moved under the radar. Poor related relationships resulted to poor accessibility to information and this would have outlay a lot of innocent lives. Thus, with these reports, it gave both the FBI as well as the CIA better strategies on the manner in which they would counterfeit potential suspects and probably examine the subsequent move of the terrorist’s organization.

References

Hess, K. M., Orthmann, C. M. H., & Cho, H. L. (2014). Police operations: Theory and practice. Clifton Park, N.Y: Delmar.

Kean, T. H., & Hamilton, L. (n.d.). National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States., The 9/11 commission report: Final report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States. New York, N.Y: W.W. Norton.

Assignment 2: Death Investigations

Question 1

            Death through the natural causes occurs once there are explanatory medical conditions or in cases where the body ceases to function as expected. Such medical conditions may include heart illness, terminal infections and kidney failures. Homicide death cause is a prearranged death murder whereby a human’s life is taken away by another man. This kind of death is usually planned and murder is executed on the victim by the murderer in cold blood. Accidental death on the other hand is an involuntary type of death which is basically committed in an act of violence by a man towards another. Suicide kind of death refers to a situation where one takes his or her own life on purpose due to reasons well known to him or her. These reasons may due to depression that may result into emotional stress. The major difference between natural death and the other kinds of death is that they occur due to natural causes.

Question 2

            Suicide kind of death is not consistent across medical examiners and many of the suspected suicides are with time classified as accidental and sometimes undetermined. Some of the factors are handled by medics so as to determine suicide causes of death. Risk factors in addition to the fact that the suicide cases are less frequent occurrences, great endeavors were made by the police officers so as to make clear the suicide patterns through the use of surveillance information. The officers also investigated on history of suicide attempts of the decedent. It is after conducting an autopsy that the pathologist discovered a large concentration of pills in the deceased intestines and it was concluded that the cause of death was suicide since the police officers report identified some missing pills from the deceased pillbox and they matched those that were found during the autopsy (Gray e al 2014).

Question 3

            Death cases are sensitive and unique in nature and thus they are investigated differently as compared to other cases. One of the distinguishing techniques in this investigation is the inclusion of a pathologist who is required to find out how or the cause of death for the victim of victims. They thus are tasked at looking at the evidence which is the dead body where they examine the physical as well as other traces which can help in establishing the most appropriate type of death or its cause. Most of these pathologists focus on the ways in which the deceased died and they will use it as a means upon which they will lay a foundation for their final conclusion. Autopsy is usually carried out in all death investigations so as to offer an actual substantiation from the pathologist. The police officers involved in the case carry out an investigation and analysis on the pathologists’ conclusion together with the police report so as to determine the cause of death. Death cases are therefore all about finding answers for the bereaved that have been faced with the loss. The other types of crimes are investigated differently as they adhere to strict guidelines. Investigators therefore must gather all evidence that would help in convicting the murders.

Question 4

            In preliminary death investigation, the investigator is expected to follow some procedures. One of the procedures is to first determine boundaries and later confer before acting. Paths of entry and exist should be determined with the right approach to that scene. The investigator should confer with the first police officer of the case. The first officer should thus be the one to escort the case investigator into performing the preliminary survey. The next step is the checking of the presence o the absence of frail evidence and the collection of all the related evidence items. Photographs should be taken so as to limit any scene intrusion before the actual crime scene. The main aim is to avoid interfering with the evidence (Hanzlick, 2007). Death of an actor, Robin William is believed to be as a result of asphyxia identified at the first round investigation thus classifying the cause of death as suicide.

Question 5

            The environment is one of the factors that affect the rate at which the body losses heat considerably. The environment also affects the decomposition rate of the dead body. The environment also affects the rigor mortis whereby the muscles stiffness due to the loss of the adenosine tri-phosphate as well as the increased accumulation of given salts in the muscles fibre (Prahlow et al 2012). The study of the dead body therefore is only relevant within a given time frame up until the body temperature counterpart that of the surrounding. The chief body temperature of the dead will often be taken by the pathologist as soon as possible at the crime scene. Thus it is important for the reading of the temperature to be done early so as to prevent cases where the cause is hard to determine. The body temperature is subject to the environmental conditions of the crime scene.

References

Gray, D., Coon, H., McGlade, E., Callor, W. B., Byrd, J., Viskochil, J., ... & McMahon, W. M. (2014). Comparative analysis of suicide, accidental, and undetermined cause of death classification. Suicide and life-threatening behavior, 44(3), 304-316.

Hanzlick, R. (2007). Death investigation: systems and procedures. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.

Prahlow, J.A., & Byard, R.W. (2012). Atlas of forensic pathology. New York: Springer.

Unit III Scholar Activity

The biological crime theories tend to explain that behaviors that are contrary to the expectations of the society can be attributed to individual characteristics.

Atavistic form theory

This theory claims that criminal behavior can be inherited. It offers suggestion that there are unique biological classes of individuals that make them prone to criminal behavior, in that they have biological features from earlier human development stage which gets manifested in form of a tendency to criminal activities (Levinson, 2002). This theory is flawed and cannot explain the reasons for engagement of crime. This is because crime is not a homogenous or natural behavior category but normally a social construction which leads to this unsustainable argument. The theory is not supported by research and the proponent – Lombroso- never used control groups that are not associated with crime to establish these claims.

Somatotypes theory

This theory basically links criminal behavior to the physical form of a person.  The proponent –Sheldon- differentiates three basic kinds of bodily build which include fat, thin and muscular and that the bodily build is related to ones temperament and personality. Hence, thin people are retrained and solitary, fat people are hedonistic and relaxed while muscular people are adventurous and energetic. The claim holds that the muscular people are likely to engage in criminal activities than the other types and there should be a link between how muscular an individual is and their criminality degree (Levinson, 2002)..  This theory may hold some potential reasons, in that a relationship can be drawn between how the muscular people are treated by others which incline them to risk of criminality. This theory involved a study on students and criminals from photos.

Extra Y theory – XYY syndrome

This theory holds that some crime may be associated with a chromosomal abnormality. A case of Klineflter’s syndrome is explored where XXY combination lead to a male form that has female characteristics. Given that extra X seems to feminize men, it was speculated by some theorists that an extra chromosome male cause hyper masculinity in men who were having it (Hagan, 2008).  Because men are known to be more aggressive than women, it could be that men with XYY chromosomes are likely to be more aggressive than fellow men and therefore, mighty be at risk of committing violent crimes (Hagan, 2008). This theory may not potentially explain reasons for criminal activities since XYY men have been found to tend to engage in crime without violence. There has been research carried out extensively on populations in hospitals and prisons where the largest group of offenders consisted of men likely to contain XYY chromosomes.

Neurotransmitters and criminality

This hypothesis holds that antisocial behavior such as crime is related to human brain’s anatomy and chemistry abnormalities.  The impulse control, planning and judgment of people suffering from ASPD is influenced by reduced neurotransmitter serotonin levels, and mal-development of Septal and limbic brain. Traumatic occurrences may affect the central nervous system’s normal development which alters the level of hormones and neurotransmitters in ones brains. The abnormalities in the neurochemistry induce ASDP development and hence lead to violent behavior in an individual (Wright, Tibbetts, & Daigle, 2014). This hypothesis can be acceptable in offering potential causes of criminal behavior, and it has been supported by various researches on the causes of Antisocial Personality disorder.

Reference

Wright, J. P., Tibbetts, S. G., & Daigle, L. E. (2014). Criminals in the making: Criminality across the life course.

Hagan, F. E. (2008). Introduction to criminology: Theories, methods, and criminal behavior. Thousand Oaks, Calif: Sage Publications.

Levinson, D. (2002). Encyclopedia of crime and punishment. Thousand Oaks, Ca: Sage Publications.

Robbery, Burglary, and Theft

            These are the three crimes that are commonly grouped together since most of the people perceive it to involve the illegal taking of someone’s property. However, theft and robbery are more similar as they are involved with the taking of someone’s personal items but burglary is to some extent different. Theft is the most commonly committed type of crime among the three crimes (Savage et al 2016). This deals with the illegal taking of someone else property without the permission from the owner. Theft results to permanent deprival of the owner of its possession. For example, if someone borrows a bicycle and intends not to return it is regarded as theft. Robbery on the other hand deals with the taking of another person’s property through the use of force or threat. Therefore it is evident that robbery is a form of crime that has a violent aspect. An example of a robbery crime is the forcing of a bank clerk to open a bank vault so as to illegally take money. Burglary is another type of crime that deals with theft though it does not necessarily require heft to occur. However it generally refers to an illegal entry into a building or a structure with an intention of committing a crime. In the case of robbery it is quite challenging to identify the description of the robber that the bank clerk may give. Another challenge may come in when the robber flees away with the cash which is hard to trace at that time. It is therefore recommended that police officers should ensure that they respond quickly to emergencies in case of robbery so as to catch up with the robbers before they flee away.

References

Savage J. & Wozniak K. (2016). Thugs and thieves: the difference etiology of violence. New York, NY: Oxford university press.

Assignment 2: International Crime Witness, Part 1

            My travel to England was characterized by a crime witnessing in Great Britain.

Demographic, Social, Political, and Economic Factors

The general population of the Great Britain is particularly made up of a high white populace of 87.2 percent. The African descendants or the descendants from Caribbean are the next largest population that is comprised of 3% of the general populace of the nation.   The rest of the population is made up of Pakistan or Indian populace.  The  primary  language in the state  is  English  and almost  60 percent of the  entire population is  from the Anglican,  Presbyterian, Methodist  or roman  catholic and the population of Muslim  is  4.4 percent  and that  of Hindu is  particularly 1.3 percent.  The nation’s population is approximately 63, 740, 977 people. The highest demographic group in the nation is   from the age bracket of between 25 and 54 years which makes up 41 percent of the entire population.  The group that follows I terms of high percent   is comprised of children who are between the ages of 0 and 14 years.  London  which is the capital city of the state  is  the biggest  city  that is comprised of  particularly  9 million  persons based on the statistics that  were  realized in 2014 (Dimmock, 2014).  The state’s government is a common wealth realm and a constitutional monarchy that is led by the guided by the queen and certified primarily by the nation’s parliament.  The law’s system can be described as a common system of law. This is a law system that   the American system is developed upon. In great Britain there are  several authoritative  political  parties  while the courts system are  broken into two different kinds which are  the  Appeal court and the subordinate  court  as  well as  the supreme court  basically (Casey, 2002).

Criminal Code in England

Generally, in England a common assault does not compromise of physical active assault.  Therefore it is most likely that the case that I witnessed can be classified as an assault which is an aggravated one.  The larger crime can particularly be made up of intent assault as the case that was witnessed was violent which means that it was characterized with different intensions.  When an individual assaults another this means that the physical body of the victim has been harmed.  The assault might have been committed with may be the intention of harming or stealing from the individual in particular (Dimmock, 2014). However if the assault was  done on a gay or  a colored person this means that the assault may  be classified as  racial  of  assault that  is  aggrieved  by  region thus  causing harm  to the  physical body of the individual (Casey, 2002).

When individuals are arrested in America they are provided with a range of rights which offers them numerous protections even if they are not American citizens. The two rights selected for this case are a jury trial and the trail presence while the case is being heard by jury (Hucklesby, & Wahidin, 2013).  The right to a jury trial plays an essential role in the American justice system and it is significant in understanding criminal matters functions.  This right particularly serves as an unfettered check on the prosecutorial authority. This right is not given to individuals who face a possible penalty of less than six full months.  A jury trial helps in increasing fairness of the cases judgment and the judicial process in general.  A jury trial is thus a guarantee of impartial and fair case trial for the American suspects.  On the other hand the right to have a trial with the listening of the jury taking place helps in ensuring there is fairness. The presence of the jury in cases helps in ensuring fair cases.  This in addition helps in eradication of biases during the case trial in general (Hucklesby, & Wahidin, 2013).  The country provides  this  rights  in order to offer protection to the  suspected  persons  through guaranteeing  that  fairness is enhanced  in the  trials.

In England and globally, assault cases particularly deals with the activities of causing harm to others or triggering fear to the victims.  The police may handle the defendant well because they need to acquire the truth of the intent of the assault.  This means that the defendant is involved through the investigation process to gather evidence of the matter (Mallicoat, & Gardiner, 2013).  Once the suspect has been thrilled with assault he will now be considered as defendant and will be held in custody and awaits the hearing of the case. American and England police culture holds several similarities as well as differences. First, the police officers in England and those in America differ in term of training culture. Those from England are enrolled to Police College for several months before getting to the fields which is longer as compared to that of the United States.  However their culture of using firearms and handling suspects is similar. Both cultures are additionally against the receiving of bribes as it is termed to be unethical (Mallicoat, & Gardiner, 2013).

            References

Casey, T. (2002). The social context of economic change in Britain: Between policy and performance. Manchester [u.a.: Manchester Univ. Press.

Dimmock, S. (2014). The origin of capitalism in England, 1400-1600. Leiden: Brill.

Hucklesby, A., & Wahidin, A. (2013). Criminal justice. OUP Oxford.

Mallicoat, S. L., & Gardiner, C. (2013). Criminal justice policy. SAGE Publications.

Organized or Otherwise Scenario

            The group below is not an organized crime group as the scenario in it has crime that is implemented by cultured groups on a regional scale.  The scenario has its crime groups that differ in size and are coming together to make up a single criminal act that is performing exercise focusing on the economic and the social effect in their operation area.  This is not referred to as the organized crime group as it is seen to have vital operations of the government such as settling of conflicts and some basic models of social security for the area. In the scenario, the organized crime group gets its main source of information from giving out services to the public (Woodiwiss, 2003).

            All the crime that is performed is always organized thus the criminal acts suggests in less social organizational levels. The theft of merchandise by the gangs is a more organized crime than is a simple attack, a group of thieves who steal these merchandises, modify them and then sell them out of America needs more organization than any other gang group who commit this act of theft.   The investigative ways that can be used to lessen this king of crime in the scenario is advancing the crime preventions programs or the institutional practice that will lessen the criminal matters that would occur. The local institutions need a vital test of the programs that evaluate the communities, families and schools and this will result as the best approach (Woodiwiss, 2003).    

            A gang is a group of linking persons or close friends with recognizable leadership and internal organization that claims to have control over a certain community thus engaging in the illegal behaviors. The reason as to why they are known as organized crime group is due to the fact that they commit the behaviors for money benefits (Woodiwiss, 2003).

Reference

Woodiwiss, M. (2003). Organized crime and American power: A history. Toronto [u.a.: Univ. of Toronto Press.