Education levels, poverty rates and lack of social organization
Vehicle crime theft is high in my commercial development city, and after conducting the research to understand the root cause of the problem, the findings show that there are some factors that contribute to the vehicle theft. The main reasons as to why people are engaging in this type of crime are city size and density (Barak, 2009). In the commercial development city, there is a higher population and wealthier victims who develop a second-hand market for stolen vehicles. The research has also shown that the city spends less on law enforcement and there is limited community cooperation. This means that criminals get the opportunity to engage in theft. Generally, factors such as social-economic development, poor civil society controls, poor urban planning, poor environmental design, and young unemployment are the factor that gives criminal opportunities to engage in the crime of theft (Barak, 2009). Burglars in this area target commercial and residential items since these items are associated with a higher market value. There is a need to employ strategic approaches such as private security and gated community to prevent vehicle theft.
In reducing vehicle crime theft, there are important things to consider or target. These include; geographical targeting, offense targeting, and offender targeting (Hoover Larry, 2013). In other words, responding to crime requires great scrutiny and the police agencies need to employ numerous crime enforcement strategies and proactive tactics such as examining the offenses and characteristics of neighborhoods, the offender's psychological profile and, the potential victims.
Geographical targeting- this is a process in which the police agency focus on a particular area of the residential neighborhood especially where there is a cluster of high crime. In addressing the issue of vehicle theft, law enforcement agencies will concentrate on the probable areas where vehicle theft is high. In addition, limited resources and less time spent are additional advantages (Hoover Larry, 2013). In our area, there are many unknown suspects but with the geographical target, the law enforcement agency will conduct research and come up with the exact number of the suspects. Through patrolling, the police will gather information from local areas residents.
The police agency can also employ an alternative intervention tactic to reduce thefts from vehicles. The police should use surveillance and tactical patrol as an alternative tactic for geographical targeting. As the police agencies target the geographical area where the crime of vehicle theft is high, they should employ surveillance techniques such as undercover operations and electronic monitoring to enable them to reduce crime (Hoover Larry, 2013). This is a cost-effective alternative in that the police agencies will see the places where the crime is high. In addition to surveillance, they should also patrol the city to monitor places where there is unusual activity.
Offense targeting – this means the law enforcement agency should target a particular type of crime and in this case, the police in my area will concentrate on vehicle theft. By targeting a particular offense, the police agency should use an intervention tactic to deal with the offenses. In this case, they should employ the problem-oriented approach that aims at finding the offense, implementing solutions and, examining the impacts of the solutions (Hoover Larry, 2013). The police agency should not only target the offense but they should also identify the problems that lead to the occurrence of the crime. The tactics include identifying the problem, gathering data to understand the problem in deeper, providing response and assess whether the response achieved the intended effects.
Offender targeting- this means that the law enforcement agency should put a focus on the ‘offender group' and in this case, the police agency should focus on the vehicle burglars. The best alternative tactic related to crime reduction is community- engagement in order to address the issue of vehicle crime and build a community free from fear of violence (Hoover Larry, 2013). The community should be an active partner in targeting the offenders. In our city, we suspect that the vast majority of burglars are young people. Note that the police agencies can only get access to information and resources from the community and so, it is important to engage them in investigations and building safe neighborhoods. Community includes youth and families, community organizations and criminal justice agencies and all these people will play a big part in reducing crime, increase public perception, reduce anti-social behavior and, build confidence and trust.
In order to implement the intervention tactics to reduce thefts from vehicles, there should be a number of participants. Various groups should get involved since crime reduction requires a coordinated approach from individuals, communities, government, and organizations.
Local government – the local government administrators should employ an environmental approach in addressing the crime. In other words, they should focus on urban planning initiatives such as protection and security, they should also consider social and economic issues such as lack of employment, poor housing, and social cohesion and more (Spalek, 2013). It is the role and responsibility of the local government to implement prevention strategies such as managing public space, developing policies, implementing crime prevention initiatives and improve street lighting for community safety.
Community- there is no specific number of community members who should play role in crime reduction and this indicates that all citizens should collaborate with police to investigate the root cause of crime and implement creative solutions. It is the role and responsibility of the citizens to come up with ideas and values that should enhance community safety (Spalek, 2013). They are entitled to report the crime, provide the police with information, participate in problem-solving, decision making and creation of crime prevention programmes.
Police officers - in building a safe community and rescue the crime of vehicle theft, all police officers must be the key participants. Police should work together with and local authorities in enforcing and maintaining law and order. They should also have a role in patrolling especially in places where crime is high to reduce fear and build a safe community. Police are obligated to find offenses, offenders and places where anti-social behaviors are high (Spalek, 2013). They should also deter crime, make decisions and enforce the law.
The intervention tactics; that is, tactic patrol and surveillance, community engagement and problem-oriented approaches have common goals of reducing crime in the city. For example, Police patrols are to detect criminal activities, the community is engaged to detect crime and, offenders and police employ the problem-oriented method to provide solutions to the identified problems. This means that all tactics aim at targeting the places, the offender and the offense and more importantly, reduce crime. However, these tactics or approaches differ in terms of the model developed in carrying out the activities toward crime prevention and reduction (Spalek, 2013). Even though the implications of the approaches are the same, each approach has a different model. For example, in targeting the geographical areas, police use surveillance and patrol to detect crime and the offenders. In targeting the offense, the approach on problem-oriented is employed to ensure that once a problem has been detected, there are solution implemented. Finally, police employ community engagement method in finding the offender. This method provides the law enforcement agency with adequate information which assists in understanding the crime, the place as well as the offender. All these intervention tactics toward crime reduction are important and they play a significant role in reducing crime but, the best method is community engagement. Note that the community will report a crime, provide the local government with community condition, play role in surveillance, promote social control over negative behaviors, increase social interaction and report suspicious people (Spalek, 2013). Therefore, community engagement is a significant tactic and can bring far-reaching positive implications.
References
Barak, G. (2009). Criminology: An integrated approach. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield.
Hoover Larry. (2013). Police Crime Control Strategies. Cengage Learning
Spalek, B. (2013). Terror crime prevention with communities. London [u.a.: Bloomsbury.
Police forces in U.S cities have employed punitive measures to respond to the recurring tragedy of gun violence. The new innovative strategy is known as ‘focused deterrence' and this a practice where police focus on the offenders of gun violence and the individuals who are victimized by gun violence (Sierra-Arevalo, 2013). The offenders are informed on the importance of engaging in constructive things such training and they are informed on the penalties they may encounter if they re-offend. For example, in U.S cities, police use the approach of focused-deference by concentrating on a specific population or rather, the American sub-groups that are most affected by gun violence. Focused-deterrence is an effective method as it has reduced gun violence in cities like Chicago, Boston, Massachusetts, Indianapolis, and others (Sierra-Arevalo, 2013).The effect is achieved by employing surgeries like identifying the problematic criminal behavior (gun violence), creating a coordinated approach such as involving police and probation officers to come up with interventions, and identifying groups involved in the targeted behavior (Sierra-Arevalo, 2013). The services that police are offering are working well since the focused deterrence help them identify the underlying dynamics that produce violence, the factors that contribute to the recurring of the crime and interventions.
Focused-deterrence strategies are associated with risks in that as police try to reduce gang violence, gangs may restrict the number of control groups by creating interconnections with other gangs. This creates the challenge of implementing the focused-deterrence approach. Another risk is that focused-deterrence requires a long-term implementation and this indicates that as police concentrate on a single city, they may fail to sustain the implemented solutions in other cities (Sierra-Arevalo, 2013). However, police can alleviate these risks by combining efforts with the law enforcement, social service providers, and community members. Note that all these stakeholders can enhance public safety and reduce gang violence by providing resources and increase scrutiny. Thus, as police concentrate on one area, scrutiny will be increased in other areas to sustain the implemented solutions.
Focused deterrence is not only used to reduce gang deaths but it also addresses issues related to drug crime and domestic violence. Focused deterrence can reduce drug crime by concentrating on the drug markets and social networks, the drug sellers, the drug abuser, and the violent incidences associated with drug-market operations (Sierra-Arevalo, 2013). For example, police can enter in the African-American community where drug trafficking and violence is high and employ the drug-control strategies that aim at building community cooperation. Focused deterrence can also reduce domestic violence by entering into the communities where the violence is high. Police can target serious offenders and provide the offender with future legal consequences. This method will reduce re-offense as the offenders will opt to adhere to the law rather than facing the legal consequences.
Since the birth of television shows, depiction of popular culture and criminal justice systems is a constant feature in many television shows. ‘Criminal Minds’ dives into the lives of criminals and the underlying reasons behind their actions. Most of the times, the intelligent criminals do not go down easily (Turvey, 2011). Hence, local authorities call the investigative Federal Bureau of Investigation for help. The show unveils investigation based on the mind of the perpetrators. This paper will argue that popular culture and influences crime in context criminal justice.
Popular culture
According to the script of the show, anyone can commit murder and cover it up easily as long he or she has a motive behind their actions. In some episode, the murderer is a single mother with a strange liking toward killing men and women (Turvey, 2011). While in other episodes, an intelligent scholar becomes a serial killer with a keen interest in prostitutes. No matter the case, anyone can murder. There are no physical characteristics that one use to identify a serial killer hence the investigators have to analyze the psychological possibilities behind a crime.
The intricate nature of the crimes leaves the viewer in shock and dumbfounded. For example, masculinity and crime seems to be some of the aspects that contribute to popular culture. From commercials, films, movies and even gaming devices, masculinity propagates crimes faster and unchallenged (Turvey, 2011). Apart from masculinity, music tends to give a person motive and inspiration to commit a crime with fear. In addition, violence through music an individual can get a chance to express his views and then carry them out as suggested in the film. In the end, popular culture contributes to crime. Simply put, the ‘Criminal minds’ deals with psychopaths who develop a strange liking toward something and they end commit murders.
Criminal justice and criminal justice
The television shows likely deals with the biological approaches to crimes rather than the court procedures. The shows offer serial killer in each episode or season. One research reveals that crime within any given area depends on occurrence of personality disorders, a feature many criminal possess. In fact, the criminals break the laws and step on the freedom of other people due personality disorders (Johnson, 2013). For example, a brain scan of antisocial individuals shows that the frontal gyrus is smaller than normal size hence increasing the likelihood to commit a crime. Therefore, the television show solves crimes based on biological evidence such as DNA and criminal clues left behind by the perpetrator. In the end, the investigators reveal information that can have meaningful impact in a court of law.
‘Criminals minds’ takes time and looks into the lives of hardcore criminals and how ordinary people conduct themselves in a normal way during the day while they hide their serial killing sprees (Johnson, 2013). The task force takes down the most intelligent criminals’ minds in America. Solving such cases is a heavy task and needs sufficient evidence and examining the trail of dead bodies lying in the wake of their crimes. The series makes it easy for its audience to watch violent scenes.
In summary ‘Criminal Minds’ explores police methods as it explores and solves the life of various serial killers through the tail of crimes left behind. The television show achieves a certain level of credibility through its meticulous and simple story telling strategies, which convinces the watcher.
References
Johnson, J. (2013). The visualization of the twisted tongue: Portrayals of stuttering in film, television, and comic books. In Literature, Speech Disorders, and Disability (pp. 170-184). Routledge.
Turvey, B. E. (Ed.). (2011). Criminal profiling: An introduction to behavioral evidence analysis. Academic press.
Illegal drug use, illegal prostitution, and money laundering
Abstract
This paper discusses the risks posed by illegal drug use, illegal prostitution, and money laundering. The three crimes pose a global threat and the response from the international community will bring a complete change as it will plan and implement various measures to address the crime in all areas. The research tends to focus on each of the three areas, considering the factors that influence each crime, the vulnerable group, the measures to combat the crime and the responsible team. The research uses original views from experts who have done research and have come up with a piece of highly credible information, clarity, evidence from focused research and a wealth of Knowledge. The information provided will help the reader learn more about the drug use and the vulnerable groups, illegal prostitute and the vulnerable as well the money laundering and its effects on the global economy. The paper has an introduction, body parts, and a conclusion. The conclusion will sum up the research and show how the three crimes are interconnected.
Introduction
Illegal drug use, illegal prostitution, and money laundering are global issues which cause detrimental effects. Illegal drug use has social consequences to the family and community in terms of health, education, and a rise of criminal activities. Prostitution affects communities in various ways including the objectification of women which leads to increase of abuses and substance abuse. Money laundering has a detrimental effect on the global economy by causing economic distortions, damages the legitimate financial institutions, and reduces government revenue and increase criminal operations. The three crimes require a strategic approach from the international community since the effects of the crime cause threats to the entire globe. Since the international community focus on promoting peace and protection, there should be international efforts toward addressing the matters of illegal drug use including demand and supply, it should also regulate illegal prostitution and address the issue of money laundering. Citizens in the entire globe need freedom and justice and the international community has a higher calling in serving its citizens by combing the illicit activity.
Illegal drug use
According to Kilmer et al (2012), the use of the illicit drug in America is on the rise as the drug abuse statistics report that about 40 million Americans abuse drugs. The commonly abused drugs include cocaine, methamphetamine, heroin, and marijuana. The use of marijuana has increased at a high rate as it is abused on daily basis unlike other substances like alcohol. Even though the statistics have shown a decline in homicides, there is a high rate of deaths that occur to the drug users. There are many abused new substances and the high prevalence is due to ‘legal highs' or new substances which are not covered by existing prohibitions (Kilmer et al, 2012). The Obama administration reports that the federal government is spending a lot on prevention, treatment and law enforcement. States are also spending on treatment, school-based prevention, campaigns, and other preventive measures.
Given that the state and local government is spending a large amount of money in drug control, the federal government is showing effort toward drug control by creating drug policy. It has passed a policy on Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act for the purpose of providing patients with insurance coverage, prevention, intervention, primary care, and community-based treatment (Kilmer et al, 2012). Another change from the federal level is targeting those who supply medical marijuana. The combination of Medicaid and the Affordable Care Act will help millions of individuals' access addiction services and substance abuse treatment. Secondly. Marijuana use is illegal under the federal level and for this reason, the federal responses put effort to target the supplies to reduce supply reduction.
Young people and drug use
Young people abuse drugs more than adults due to factors such as the urge to seek new experiences, influence from peer pressure, popular media, and lack of confidence, misinformation and more. The commonly abused substances include tobacco, marijuana, and alcohol among other substances that bring devastating effects. Mckeganey, Mcintosh & Macdonald (2003) conducted research to determine the factors that influence young people in using the illicit drug and found that family is a strong factor. Family background plays a big role in shaping adolescent behavior either healthy behavior or unhealthy behaviors such as drug use. Several studies have researched the factors that influence the use of illicit drug ranging from genetic transmission and nurturing environment. Considering different factors, recent researches have confirmed that poor family functioning such as neglect, divorce, and abuse increases the risk of adolescents drug use (Mckeganey, Mcintosh & Macdonald, 2003). After conducting quantitative and qualitative research, the authors found that young people become aware of the use of illicit drug through their family members. In a conducted study, young people who used illicit drug reported that their parents and relatives used to take drugs. Even though it is important to understand the different types of drug that young people commonly abuse, it is also important to know the reason as to why young people engage in these criminal acts. The research has shown that family factors or rather family drug use are a factor that influences young people in engaging in drug use (Mckeganey, Mcintosh & Macdonald, 2003). The authors assert that given that relatives' drug use is a contributing factor, it is important to address this issue by developing peer support groups, and teachers should also become involved in addressing the issue of the family drug by discussing with pupils.
On the issue of drug use, Borges et al (2018) have done research to find out the use of the drug in the US-Mexico border. The authors have given a piece of great information that the rate of drug use in US-Mexico border is high. The reason being, Mexico cities closer to the U.S are more affluent and laws of drug use in these cities are liberal thus attracting foreign customers (Borges et al, 2018). Another reason as to why drug use in US-Mexico border is high is due to the reason that some cities such as Tijuana have a high population of return immigrants and Mexican nations, who makes the prevalence of drug use become high. On the U.S side, US cities which are closer to the border are poor and the rate of crime and violence including drug trafficking and drug use is high (Borges et al, 2018). In trying to understand the issue of illicit drug use, Borges et al (2018) report that the physical environment is a factor that influences individuals toward engaging in the use of the illicit drug. In addition to the family factors that influence young people to engage in the use of the drug, another factor that has been reported is the physical environment which has to do with population structure (demographic composition), population density, housing quality, social environment, and formal and informal social services. In addition to these physical environments, the research done by Borges et al (2018) confirms that the life in the border areas is different from the interior regions. In other words, the US-Mexico border has higher contributors to drug use. For example, U.S cities which are near the border experience a higher rate of unemployment and poverty. On the Mexico side, cities near the border also experience a high rate of poverty and stresses due to border security from the U.S and the costly drug war.The research has shown that even though Mexican cities and U.S cities are separate cities, they share cultural ties since people from the same family live in both cities (Borges et al, 2018). The purpose of conducting research on drug use in these two cities is to help implement the best programs for prevention. To address this issue, public health actions will be of great help as it will not only put emphases on drug use and its consequences but it will also offer preventive measures and treatment.
Illegal Prostitution
Overview
Prostitution is the act of performing sexual acts for material gains such as money, expensive clothing, real estate and more. Settegast (2018) introduces the issue of illegal prostitution by asserting that there is a difference between prostitution and casual sex in that the former is harmful where is the latter does not cause any harm but rather it is a form of sexual enjoyment. Individuals who engage in sexual activities are at a higher risk and to protect them from the risk, people are being prohibited from buying and selling sex. Prostitution is a debatable issue where liberals argue that it should be legalized and de-stigmatized whereas some argue that prostitution is intrinsically harmful. Settegast (2018) sex is a joint action which achieves a standard of excellence but prostitution undermines the joint action and for this reason, it brings harm. The author argues that prostitution does not create intimacy and enjoyment but the participants engage in sexual activities for money. Even though people engage in various forms to search for money, prostitution is harmful as it forces an individual to fail to adhere to the virtues. In other words, individuals who engage in prostitution lack temperance and he or she cannot do according to the strengths of one's desire nor do the right action (Settegast, 2018). The author tends to show that illegal prostitution violates the virtues of temperance and thus, it is detrimental and indicates a lack of virtue. The author tends to prove the immorality or rather the illegality of prostitution by asserting that individuals who engage in prostitution lack healthy vocational pride, lack self-respect and they are influenced by the desire for money.
On the issue of illegal prostitution, Hounmenou (2017) adds that illegal prostitution has given rise to a public health problem. The prostitution prevalence is very high and research and studies have confirmed that child prostitution is leading in causing public health problem especially in Sub-Sahara Africa. Children are at risk of being infected by HIV-AIDS and STI. Despite the high prevalence and associated consequences, Sub-Saharan African countries have not developed policies and programs to address the issue (Hounmenou, 2017). It is important to note that child prostitution is as a result of sex trafficking which menus that children engage in prostitution due to coercion whereas others engage to meet their basic needs such as food and clothing. Despite the vulnerability to sexually transmitted infection, children are under-represented in research of violence. There are few reliable data regarding the child prostitution and violence but most studies concentrate on women violence. This means that children are considered as sex workers but the UN Convection that deals with children's right affirm that children below 18 are the victim of sexual exploitation. Recent studies have affirmed that girls and women are more vulnerable to sexually transmitted infections and the high prevalence rate is due to the environment they live in (Hounmenou, 2017). For example, in Sub-Saharan Africa, the prevalence of STIs and HIV/AIDs is high due to factors such as immaturity and limited access to protective measures such as condoms. Having understood that there is a high prevalence rate of child prostitution in Sub-Saharan Africa and that child prostitution is not perceived as a social issue, social ownership must be in the front line to offer specialized needs to the prostituted children (Hounmenou, 2017). In addition, the Sub-Saharan Africa regions should consider child prostitution as a public health issue and provide appropriate policy response, enforce policies and encourage law enforcement to provide appropriate protection.
Money Laundering
Money laundering is the act of converting dirty money- derived from illegal means such as prostitution and drug trafficking to- clean money. Criminals involved in the process of money laundering tend to hide the ownership of their criminal activities so that they can retain control and cover their wealth (Choo et al, 2014). Money laundering is an evil act that puts financial institutions into risks. The research on money laundering has found that the process involves three elements that are; placement-movement of money derived from illegal activities into a banking system, the second process is layering- at this stage, the criminal’s convert’s money into monetary instruments such as banker's draft and money orders. Money which is in a form of the asset is resold to make it difficult to trace its source. The third process is integration- this means that cash in the financial institution is converted into monetary instruments and put into the legitimate business (Choo et al, 2014). The research by Choo et al (2014) finds that the September 11, 2001 attacks contributed to the act of money laundering since organized crime groups required a fund to finance their terrorism efforts. Research has also shown that it is not possible to estimate the amount of money laundered but with advances in technology, financial institutions will be able to come up with direct estimates. The United State Financial Action Task Force (FATF) is an international body that is encouraging countries to pass Anti-money Laundering laws (AML) (Choo et al, 2014). However, the FATF argues that the government, law enforcement, supervisors and other bodies should play role in enforcing the AML.
Another important point derived from the research is that money laundering is contributed by organized crime and for this reason, Anti-money Laundering should not only focus on reducing money laundering but should also focus on reducing the criminal activities such as corruption and terrorism (Choo et al, 2014). Note that organized crime groups need a higher amount of money to support their activities. In other words, they finance their operations fund from illegitimate sources such as extortion, smuggling, narcotics trafficking and more. Thus, efforts should also be directed toward combating terrorists through cooperative efforts and technical assistance programs. The international community or rather the world's nations should support in order to combat money laundering. Money laundering and terrorists are a threat to the economy in that they affect the economic integrity and stability, undermine the financial institution, affect the macroeconomic performance, discourage foreign investigation and affects the stability of capital flow (Choo et al, 2014). Anti-money Laundering regulations are designed to stop the illegal actions of generating money. However, the process can be costly since financial criminals are implementing new ways of money laundering which means that even with the use of AML, offenders will still take advantage and proceed with the criminal acts. However, the benefits of the AML outweighs the risks (Choo et al, 2014). To assess the cost-effectiveness of AML, the best way is to use the ‘opportunity cost theory' and a ‘break-even point' and by so doing, the implications will be far-reaching.
Conclusion
Illegal drug use, illegal prostitution, and money laundering are a threat to the global economy and to the well-being. From the research, it is worth saying that the three crimes are connected in that illegal drugs bring devastating effects such as prostitution. In other words, drug use and prostitution are interconnected as most street prostitute's abuse drugs such as cocaine heroin and some engage in prostitution after developing drug habits. Moreover, individuals who engage in drug use suffer from financial struggles and for them to meet their basic needs, they engage in the sex trade to gain money. Drug use and prostitution are also interconnected with money laundering in that illegal funds are derived from illegal sources such as prostitution and drug trafficking where the fund is converted into clean money. In a nutshell, the three crimes are interconnected and thus, the international community should join hands in combating the criminal activities such money laundering, illegal prostitution, and drug trafficking and drug use.
References
Kilmer, B., RAND Drug Policy Research Center, & Rand Corporation. (2012). The U.S. Drug Policy
Landscape : Insights and Opportunities for Improving the View. Santa Monica, CA: RAND
The Kansas City Preventive Patrol Experiment was conducted by the Kansas City Police with assistance from the Police Foundation. The experiment sought to assess the effectiveness of police patrol presence in the community in relation to reducing crime and making citizens feel safer. From the experiment, a conclusion was drawn that the amount of police presence during patrols had little impact in reducing the level of crime in the area. Increasing the level of patrol also failed to increase people’s confidence in the police as they did not feel any safer even with increased police presence.
The proactive measures taken to prevent crime were implemented in 15 police beats whereby routine preventive patrols were classified as reactive beats and were eliminated in five beats. Since police officers could only enter the areas when responding to calls from citizens, the beats were similar in relation to police presence in the area before the calls came in (NPF, 2016). A normal routine was maintained in five control beats but increased double or triple the number in five proactive beats. The difference was greatly influenced by the number of calls made by residents especially in the case of reactive beats compared to the rest.
In the experiment, reactive beats refer to actions taken by police in their beats while responding to calls from residents seeking assistance or reporting crimes that needed to be investigated. In relation to adjoining proactive beats, proactive beats differ from concentrated presence in that, the number of police presence in an area was determined by the frequency of calls from residents seeking assistance from the police (NPF, 2016). Concentrated presence on the other hand means that police patrols are located in specific areas regardless of whether there have been calls from residents or not. While the number of police presence in the case of reactive beats differs, the number of police in concentrated presence is constant unless stipulated otherwise.
From the experiment, the basic components of crime prevention focused on police presence, willingness of residents to report crime and the ability of patrols to deter crime. The experiments examined how effective police officers would be in preventing crime especially when dealing with reactive beats (NPF, 2016). Its success was however heavily dependent on residents willingness to report crimes as this would help police officers to track down a crime in progress and react accordingly. The proactive approach of the police and residents sought to deter crime as police would be mostly on patrol and their effectiveness intensified by the assistance from the residents.
Over time, prevention trends have evolved from simple proactive measures that involve civilians to the inclusion of different forms of technology such as cameras and other advanced forensic equipment (Kelling, 2013). While past prevention methods relied heavily on reaching the crime scene during the occurrence of the crime, new methods have made it possible to track down criminals and tie them to specific crimes with enough evidence to convict them of crimes regardless of how long an offence was committed.
Even with the advancement in technology and police efficiency in preventing crime, there are various topics for discussion in regards to crime prevention and deterrence. The first topic could focus on the role that residents could still play to deter crime (Novak et al, 2017). With advancements in technology, citizens could be more effective in not only reporting crimes but also capturing details about criminals such as taking recordings of crimes in progress. Another topic that could be discussed is how to make patrols more effective in deterring crime. Doing so will ensure that police presence in an area has better outcomes as tools of crime deterrence.
References
Kelling, G. L. (2013). The Kansas City preventive patrol experiment: A summary report. Washington: Police Foundation.
The Stanford prison experiment, also referred to as the Zombardo experiment, was a study carried out in 1971 by Philip Zombado, a psychologist in Stanford university who sought to demonstrate how people end up slipping into pre-defined roles associated with the position they find themselves in. The study was based on the premise that human beings have the tendency to abandon their beliefs and principles given the right conditions especially when placed in a position of power. In the case of the Stanford Prison Experiment, Zombardo wanted to show how guards become dehumanized and often end up forgetting or neglecting their moral and social values while working in the prison system. Prison guards can therefore benefit from learning about what happened in the study as it explains how the loosening of morals occurred and gives a detailed account of the things that were done to trigger the received outcomes. It can therefore be used to help prison guards to avoid being influenced by the policies and stereotypes that exist in prison regardless of the crimes or behavior of the inmates in their care.
When conducting the experiment, Zombardo offered to pay individuals who would participate in the study. Out of the 75 people who showed up for the experiment, only 24 were chosen and 12 were given the role of guards while the other 12 were to act as inmates (Resnick, 2018). The inmates were arrested from their homes and taken to the makeshift prison where they were given cheap clothes and even denied innerwear in an attempt to dehumanize them. Guards on the other hand were given military weapons and even wooden batons to resemble guards in real prisons (Resnick, 2018). With Zombardo playing the role of the warden, he could closely observe what was going on in the prison and how the two groups were behaving. The experiment was a true depiction of how people let go of their morals especially in places where there is an expected type of behavior.
It only took two days for the guards to start using inhumane methods to punish the guards such as confiscating their mattresses and forcing them to sleep on cold floors. When the prisoners revolted, he guards used fire extinguishers and enacted even more humiliation as a way of making the prisoners docile and easy to control (Resnick, 2018). From the experiment, prison guards can observe how the subjects of the experiment forgot their own morals and started acting how they thought prison guards are expected to carry themselves. The not only forgot that they were in an experiment but also resulted to using stricter means of punishment (Hebert & Onishi, 2014). From this, prison guards can learn how to stick to what they believe in rather than what is expected of prison guards. Although the methods used did control the prisoners, the tactics were inhumane and did not place any importance in rehabilitation which should be the core focus of the prison systems.
The experiment was able to prove that people, especially when in authority, are capable of inhumane acts even when unwarranted. An example of this is when the guards denied the prisoners permission to use toilet facilities as they became more of a privilege (Konnikova, 2015). They even made the prisoners wash the toilets using their bare hands. From the experiment, it is also clear that most of the reactions from the prisoners were as a result of the cruel treatment they were forced to endure (Konnikova, 2015). Even when the inmates stopped revolting, the guards continued to use the same harsh treatment. Prison guards can therefore observe the results from the experiment and come up with better ways of handling inmates and even find more humane ways to punish those who do wrong.
Originally, the experiment was meant to last for two weeks. It was however ended after five days as it was discovered that the inmates were experiencing mental traumas and emotional distress. Zombardo had even started to be negatively affected by the experiment and two inmates had already been sent home by the time the researchers saw it fit to end the experiment (Shuttleworth, 2017). The extent to which the treatment the inmates were forced to endure should act as caution to prison guards who may not fully understand how to go about handling inmates. Instead of following the example set by other guards, prisoners should follow their own principles and morals to come up with the appropriate methods to control and punish inmates when necessary.
The main purpose of the Stanford Prison Experiment was to show how easily people could be corrupted especially when placed in a setting with its own set of norms. The experiment was designed to emulate most prisons and follow the practices carried out in actual correctional facilities. Immediately after the experiment commenced, the inmates took up the roles expected for prisoners while the guards developed the attitude associated with prison guards. From the experiment, guards can learn where people go wrong especially when it comes to abandoning their morals and engaging in inhumane acts. As prison guards, the objective should be to follow ones principles and engage in humane conduct even when dealing with criminals.
References
Hebert S and Onishi L, (2014) “The Stanford Prison experiment: Implications for the care of the difficult patient” American Journal of Hospice and Pallative Medicine
Konnikova m, (2015) “The real lesson of the Stanford prison experiment” The New Yorker
Resnick B, (2017) “Philip Zimbardo defends the Stanford Prison Experiment, his most famous work” VOX
Shuttleworth M, (2017) “Stanford prison experiment”
Fraud in the UK has for the past few decades been increasing at an alarming rate. However, the intervention of the Serious Fraud Office (SFO) the fraud rate and raids have increased over the last few years, in particular, resulting from the implementation of the Fraud Act of 2006. SFO has demonstrated considerable effort in the past year gathering information with regard to major scam in the United Kingdom. In 2017 the agency completed more than 30 fraud raids on major suspects which is more than what had been done in the last three years inclusively. Based on the rising cases it has become clear that fraud in the UK has increased by above 500 percent with respect to the last fifteen years. The latest public reports revealed about 6 percent rise in major frauds throughout 2017 as the infringement amounted to about 2 billion Euros[1]. In this context, it is rather not surprising that SFO has acquired an aggressive action plan to smoke out all the fraudsters over the last few years as it seeks to stop rotting. Thus, following the implementation of the Fraud Act of 2006, SFO’s intervention has critically reduced the rate of fraud in the United Kingdom significantly.
Fraud under the Fraud Act 2006 refers to the deliberate dishonesty that is made for self-gains or to cause damages to another[2]. Fraud is a crime that entails the infringement of civil law in the UK. Dishonesty or having an awareness that the representation is misleading or false with the intention of increasing personal gain and exposing others to harm or loss might amount to fraud by false representation[3]. On the other hand, where there lies a legal obligation to disclose any form of information, but one fails to do so with the motive of gaining or causing harm, this would amount to fraud by failing to disclose[4]. Abuse of position fraud is likely to where trust positions are abused with dishonesty with the intention of enhancing financial gains that might result in losses. A test of dishonesty is needed to confirm fraud occurred. This involves trying to determine whether the defendant realized that his actions were unlawful but opted to continue for his or her gains. This is best illustrated by the case of Royal Brunei Airlines Sdn Bhd v Tan [1995] 2 AC 378 that concerned the infringement of trust and accountability for deceitful assistance[5]. Fraud is a victimless crime because it is an illegal act involving only the perpetrators with no direct victims.
SFO was set by in 1987 but initiated the following year, with the objective of creating an amalgamated organisation accountable for investigation and trial of serious fraud cases. The SFO entails a non-ministerial regime department of the UK’s government that mainly investigates and prosecutes those that are involved in complex and extensive fraud, bribery and corruption in Wales, Northern Ireland and England[6]. Throughout the twelve months before March 2018, the agency in its interventions tripled the rate of raids that were executed thus reaching its highest peak in the last six years[7]. It is worth noting that it is only about 9 cases that were raised in 2016 as well as a total of 13 which is a total of both 2014 and 2015[8]. This, therefore, illustrates that the passing of the Fraud act has in some ways fuelled the raids resulting in a decrease of major fraud in the UK. Over the last few years, the SFO has presented some major high-profile fraud probes despite the mounting political criticism against such practices. Some of the high profile cases that it has helped in addressing include Petrofac oil giant, British American tobacco as well as Rio Tinto mining firm[9]. It is widely assumed that the statistics of raids are even higher than what is reported to the general public based on the sensitivity of the issue based on the need to uphold confidentiality about the fraud and investigation practices.
The integration of both SFO and Fraud Act of 2006 has had a positive impact with respect to fraud. After the enactment of the Fraud Act, it is evident that SFO has been able to increase its intervention in fraud raids than before. The act mainly represents one of the most radical transformations in regard to the law of criminal fraud having come into force on January of 2007. While considering the duration that is taken normally by prosecutions and criminal investigations it is apparent that the fact that the agency has solved a significant number of cases in the recent cases best illustrates its ability to deal with fraud. The fact that SFO has been able to prosecute more individuals is driven by the fact that the Act created more opportunities to made raids by making corporate corruption and bribery prosecutable[10]. In other words, the act has resulted in a remarkable improvement of fraud prosecutions since SFO is currently the only institution that is seriously fighting fraud following the provisions of the Act. Besides, its funding has improved, and the assertion of this legislation has enhanced its courage and morale to pursue bigger cases without being undermined by political pressure.
In conclusion, has for the longest period remained as a pressing and yet controversial public issue. Fraud in the UK has increased at an alarming rate in the last decade but the enacted of the Fraud Act has helped in reducing corruption cases drastically. The act serves as a valuable prosecution tool as it upholds the interest of the society at heart by encouraging more strategic measures to establish and establish any form of fraud. In the past, the provisions were rather weak with no logical basis which accounts for the high rates. SFO has been successful in the fight against corruption courtesy of the fraud act. Even though, the SFO has achieved so little there is hope based on its current effort to unleash major cases.
References
Barrington Robert, ‘What’s the State of Play at the Serious Fraud Office?’ (Transparency International UK, 29 March 2018) < https://www.transparency.org.uk/whats-the-state-of-play-at-the-serious-fraud-office/ > accessed 26th November 2018
Consultancy UK, ‘Number of Serious Fraud Office raids highest in six years’ (Consultancy UK, 31st July 2018) <https://www.consultancy.uk/news/18113/number-of-serious-fraud-office-raids-highest-in-six-years> accessed 26th November 2018
The OJJDP developed the anti-gang initiative to reduce and eliminate the gang activities in both rural and suburb areas. OJJDP has collaborated with community partners such as the faith-based organizations, community leaders and law enforcement to bring prevention and intervention toward gang activity (U.S Department of Justice, n.d). OJJDP ensures that these stakeholders for gang prevention and elimination receive training, technical assistance fund, and the strategies needed to carry out the activities. The annual National Youth Gang Survey provides data based on the gang activities and in 2012, law enforcement agencies derived information from the NYGS and found that in 3,100 jurisdictions, the total number of gangs in 2012 were 30, 700 and gang members were 850, 000. From 2011 to 2012, the number of homicides increased by 20% (U.S Department of Justice, n.d). Following these gang crimes, the OJJDP has come up with strategies based on implementing a social intervention, mobilizing community member toward combating gang and providing the gang members with an opportunity for education.
In the United State, gang violence started to rise in the mid of 20th century. Since this period, there have been widespread criminal behavior and violence and knowledge based on how gang forms and measures to combat gang violence was not known. Focusing on the early history of juvenile facilities, children aged 14 years and above were held accountable for criminal behaviors and received a similar punishment to adults (U.S Department of Justice, n.d). Children's cases were ruled under the common law until the period of the 1800s when the child-saving movement was created to save the children by establishing reforms. In addition to the development of juvenile courts, current research has provided a well-researched information on how gangs are formed, how to assess gang problem, and the best prevention and intervention method. In the past years, U.S early programs focused on preventing youth from becoming gang members. However, the comprehensive anti-gang by the OJJDP has brought improvement in that the gang activities are not combatted by prevention only but the prevention connected to a variety of strategies such as employment community organizations and creating-school based programs (U.S Department of Justice, n.d). These strategies are designed not only to prevent youths from engaging in gang activities but also constructive activities, legal assistance, counseling and education for current gang members to help them reunite with the community and family members.
Reference
U.S Department of Justice (n.d). Comprehensive Anti-Gang Initiative. Office of Justice Programs. Retrieved from: https://www.ojjdp.gov/programs/antigang/index.html
Impact of cumulative risk on youth violence and gang affiliation
Cumulative risk in terms of multiple domains is that it may lead to poor health. Youth violence puts one at a higher risk of injury by another person whom he or she engages in a fight. More so, surrounding that harbor violence bring about stress, which hinders a youth from properly functioning in a normal manner thus causing poor health (Office for Victims of Crime, 2013).
A violent youth is at risk of trauma. Consequently, trauma leads to lack of sleep and a short attention span. It triggers a youth to become more aware of danger around them and prepare for any eventuality hence causing behavior changes in both the mind and body. In addition, an alteration in behavior makes it hard for a child to get over past violent events (Office for Victims of Crime, 2013)
Finally yet importantly, violence may lead to drug abuse. Not only are drugs illegal but also destroy the health of youths who engage in violence. Usage of drugs leads to anti-social behavior and unrest. Actually, behaviors that come because of drugs fuel violent character further (Office for Victims of Crime, 2013)
Gang membership and youth violence comparison
Gang membership can lead to youth violence and vice versa. Equally important to note is that belonging to a gang changes behavior of a youth hence the probability of that particular youth becoming violent is high and evident. Gang membership gives a young adult all the tools they need to rebel and develop criminal violent behavior (Office for Victims of Crime, 2013)
Youth violence most of the times, comes from domestic viciousness and the surrounding neighborhood. Thus, children from violent backgrounds continue the cycle in their early adulthood. Unlike, gang membership, which needs initiation from another person, youth violence only, needs a rack through which it can grow to the top (Office for Victims of Crime, 2013)
Young people join gangs for various reason such as lack of jobs, social isolation, desire for protection, domestic violence, peer pressure, poor parental supervision and lack of school attachment (Howell, 2011). These are some of the risk factors that motivate youths in joining gangs and it is important to understand them in order to implement effective measures. However, young people should know that joining a gang is associated with negative consequences which affect the entire life. For example, when one joins a gang, the chances of engaging in drug abuse and addiction is higher which later leads to health issues. In addition, gang members are likely to be injured, incarcerated and lack good employment (Howell, 2011). As a counselor, 4 pieces of advice that I would offer to a gang member are; one, young people believe that as they join a gang, they will make lots of money, have plenty of friends, live a happy life and be powerful. These are myths and the truth is that gang members are injured, killed, die at an early age and spend most of their life in jail. Second, everyone was born for a purpose and everyone is entitled to enjoy the lasting happiness. This happiness and inner peace cannot be found in gangs but it is found in the community, family, and friends. Third, there are many constructive things in the community that one can do to sustain life and become a productive member. For example, one can attend weekly games, attend computer training, attend church activities, extracurricular activities, and attend life skills seminars and more (Howell, 2011). The fourth and important advice is to make wise choices when choosing friends. One should make new friends and find a mentor who will act as a role model and who will encourage good habits and instill positive life skills.
As a counselor, I would employ various methods to ensure that the gang member does not resort back to gang activities. The major methods include; wraparound intervention-this means that I would create a constructive relationship with the gang member to address the complex needs of the individual. I would plan for an in-home tutoring to meet his or her personal interest and have face to face communication in order to achieve positive outcomes (Howell, 2011). Second, I would create an intervention program designed for cognitive behavioral therapy to provide the individual with self-awareness and life skills. Third, I would connect the gang member with family, community and learning institutions to ensure that the individual spends time with important people doing constructive things (Howell, 2011). Among these methods, the most important method is a wraparound intervention where I would meet the gang member twice a week to manage the problems, change behaviors, make new friends and solve conflicts. This method will give the gang member an opportunity to view things from a positive perspective and live a productive life.
I found some interesting points on law enforcement suppression. First, I learned that the law enforcement should be in the frontline to suppress gang and protect the community through arresting gangs to decrease the gang-related criminal activities. Another interesting point is that, for the criminal justice system to suppress gang, police/probation officers should conduct an investigation in the community to find out the gang-related crimes and share intelligence. Third, I learned that law enforcement suppression is associated with drug trafficking. This occurs due to the higher criminalization of gang-youths in the prison (Kristol, 1998).
However, law enforcement suppression is sometimes effective since the law enforcement focus on serious crimes and incarceration of serious offenders thereby reducing crime on the community. Second, law enforcement focus on enforcing community norms to deal with less serious gang-related behaviors (Kristol, 1998). Third, law enforcement works with probation and parole officers in developing programs and activities to address gang-related crime.
The law enforcement employs various methods of suppression but the most effective method is prosecuting gang member using vertical prosecution. The latter means that the prosecutor who presents charges handles all the phases of the case.The purpose of this method is to deal with a specialized expert in criminal cases and who understands gang membership and provides sensitive treatment toward the case (Kristol, 1998). By using vertical prosecution, gang members or offenders who are involved in serious crime receive long sentence thereby suppressing crime.
References
Kristol, W. (1998). Urban street gang enforcement. Place of publication not identified: Diane Pub Co.
Howell C. James. (2011). Gang Prevention: An Overview of Research and Programs. DIANE Publishing.
According to Howell, historically, gang researchers could not notice the active involvement of girls. The reasons are; the researchers and the society had the perception that female gangs were not important, they did not play a significant role and they associated themselves with the male gang. Researchers believed that gangs were male-dominated and girls were not real gangs but they were ‘male imitations' or they imitated the male criminal behaviors (Howell, 2012). Secondly, researchers believed that female gangs were sex objects and girlfriends. In other words, they were treated as weapon carriers or they assisted men in carrying weapons, gathering intelligence and providing sexual favors. Third, the researchers relied on the perception that female and male gangs differ greatly. Focusing on the structure and characteristics of both, the past researchers believed that female gangs lacked gang instinct whereas boys had a high tendency to engage in criminal behaviors (Howell, 2012). On the same note, it was argued that the social behaviors of girls from the tradition and customs were not related to gang activities. Again, girls were closely supervised and well incorporated into the social structure and thus they could not engage in criminal behaviors.
The gang research increased in 1970 and since this period, several studies have confirmed that female gang members engage in violent behaviors. However, despite the increase in gang research, female gang involvement is increasing (Howell, 2012). The studies have reported that in the past decade, female gang involvement is high and female members engage in violent delinquency more than female criminals who are not in gangs. Today, both male and female gangs are committing similar crimes such as robbery, assault among other violent offenses. The studies also state that the rise in female gangs started in the 1980s due to the ‘economic restructuring' which gave way to gang opportunities (Howell, 2012). Female gangs are engaging in drug dealing, physical fights, substance abuse and other risky behaviors. Despite the vigorous research on gang, I believe that female gang involvement is increasing since the factors that influence them toward joining gangs have not been solved. Factors such as poor home life, lack of economic development, neighborhood violence are some of the factors that influence girls in joining gang (Howell, 2012). To reduce the involvement, there should be social interventions, community mobilization and human service programs that will provide jobs to young people and education opportunities.
The first instance of a criminal activity committed by a female-gang is about a female gang who stole yoga pants worth of $17,000 at one Fresno store. Three women entered the store and filled their bags with the most expensive yoga pants worth 100$ each (Fernandez, 2018). According to the investigation, the three women are part of a female gang that stole about $145, 000 from Lululemon stores. The police are going on with the investigation and anyone with any information is requested to contact the police.
The second instance is about a woman from the MS-13 gang who was sentenced 95years for robberies in Montgomery. The woman participated in planning and engaging in the armed robbery. She will first serve 25% in the prion before applying for parole (Hemphill Anjali, 2018). The third instance is about female gang known as ‘Operation Bloodette' who was convicted for drug-trafficking of heroin, cocaine, and marijuana which worth $2.6 million per year (Philip, 2009).
In the three instances, the crimes committed that is; theft and armed robbery were treated the same as the crimes committed by male gangs. For example, in the first case, the police did not ignore the female gang but they were to continue with the investigation. Similar, the female gangs in the second case was sentenced and the female gangs in the third case were arrested.
The National Youth Gang Survey (NYGS) finds that gang activity vary by city size. In other words, the largest cities such as Chicago, Texas, Pennsylvania and New York have the greatest number of gang members. The key aspects that contribute to the variation in gang activities are;
Economic and cultural context- cities with high diverse population experience a higher level of poverty. Poverty and racial heterogeneity contribute to gang violence since majority lack jobs and engage in criminal activities such as selling drugs to make money (Howell, 2011). White youth also develop different assumptions on minority and create violence against them.
Drug-related factors- large cities which are socioeconomically disadvantaged experience more gang violence. The large cities are highly populated and have high level of poverty (Howell, 2011). Youths who lack educational attainment, employment and housing end up engaging in criminal activities such as drug-trafficking. For the youth to engage in drug dealing like drug sales and distribution, they own guns.
Access to crime facilitators- cities with higher availability of firearms have more violence than cities where access to firms is difficult. When young people access gangs, they recruit other adolescents and all carry guns to protect themselves. In some cities, young criminals’ access gangs from licensed gun dealers who sells guns illegally or what is known as ‘private sales’ (Howell, 2011). Some cities have poor interventions methods of reducing guns supply and this increase gang access and use.
The following are ways in which we can reduce gang activity;
Community assessments- the community should be in the frontline to conduct assessment and identity the factors that drives adolescents toward joining gangs and committing crime. Assessment involves defining gangs, understanding the levels of gang activity, crime pattern, classifying them and identity the target group (Howell, 2011). This will help create a strategic planning and come up with effective community services. After conducting assessment, the community should develop prevention and intervention programs at individual level, family level and school and community level.
In addition to conducting a community assessment, gang activity can be reduced through primary prevention program. This include providing education and training to young people. They should learn the risk of gang involvement, social skills and conflict resolution (Howell, 2011).
Third, gang activity can be reduce through secondary prevention programs-these include helping the young people who live in low socioeconomic cities. This method will reduce antisocial behaviors, improve school performance and reduce drug use. In addition to improving their living condition, there should be cognitive behavioral program that aims at helping the adolescents control their anger and understand community norms (Howell, 2011).
Of these proposed methods, the most effective method that I believe will reduce gang activity is conducting community assessment. It is not possible to provide primary and secondary intervention programs without conducting a comprehensive assessment to understand the community risk factors that influence young people in joining gangs (Howell, 2011). This method will help come up with a balanced and an integrated strategy that will address all the selected factors.
The number of gangs is rising dramatically especially in large cities. Gang members are posing a serious threat to the public through their gang activities such as shooting, extortion, theft and more (Howell, 2011). However, there are demographic characteristics of cities that explains the dramatic rise of gang trend. The first feature is population size. Large cities are experiencing demographic changes due to modern rapid population movement. The higher population is causing social disorganization, lack of social control and rise in poverty. These conditions influences the second-generation immigrants in joining gang and committing crime such as street robberies to sustain their lives. The second feature is race and ethnicity- cities with higher number of multiracial groups have higher gang membership. As the immigrant youth enters in new cities, they face economic and cultural barriers and inadequate family care. They join gangs and live in streets to sustain their life. The third feature is popular culture (Howell, 2011). Youth who live in large cities enjoy the popular music, entertainment and other leisure activities. The popular culture also portrays the gang lifestyle and this strengths the desire of adolescents to join gang.
The population size, race and ethnicity and, popular culture matter because in implementing prevention and intervention programs, it is important to consider the population size because the higher the population the higher the number of gang members and associated crime. In addition, race and ethnicity matter since the higher the rate of multiracial group, the higher the poverty and criminal activity (Howell, 2011). The factors; the population size and racial and ethnicity groups are significant as they assist in developing strategies to combat gang activity and involvement. For example, there should a policy on immigration control to prevent the formation of gang and crime. Second, there should be programs designed to improve the lives of the multiracial groups so that they may engage in constructive things and avoid crime (Howell, 2011).
Reference
Howell C. James. (2011). Gangs in America’s Communities. SAGE Publications
Howell C. James. (2011). Gang Prevention: An Overview of Research and
The five-stage theory of gang focus on group development where people with different personalities come together and forms social cohesion. As they form social relationships, cohesive units and share viewpoints and knowledge, they are able to solve problems together, find solutions, increase performance and achieve their goals (O'Connell & Cuthbertson, 2009). However, the members of the group must go through five states so that they can achieve their goals; the group progresses through the following stages;
Forming
In this stage, members are interested in knowing the purpose of the group and the role that they are expected to play. Since there not operation procedures to guide the members, they form social cohesion or they develop relationships where they share information and make decisions regarding norms and roles (O'Connell & Cuthbertson, 2009). This stage is known as the forming stage since members spend a higher amount of energy in knowing each other, defining and analyzing roles and ensuring that the group is in equilibrium.
Storming
This group is characterized by conflict and disagreement due to the rise of power and hierarchy of status. The members focus on making clear goals, roles, norm and leaders who will lead the group. However, many people may struggle against domination and recognition and portray negative behaviors such as jealousy, distrust and more (O'Connell & Cuthbertson, 2009). Yet, the conflict, struggle, and tension allow the members to resolve their differences, becomes versatile and stronger, develops a common understanding and mutuality of concern, creates stronger bonds and works together as a team.
Norming
Having gone through struggle and conflict, the members resolve the issues and develops, cohesion and social agreements. In addition, they create group norms and outlines the acceptable behaviors and focus on task completion. Members understand their roles, develops a spirit of co-operation, share common goals and work together as a team.
Performing
At this stage, members perform their assigned tasks effectively and efficiently since the group is already matured. Effectively performance is influences by clear and achievable goals and objectives, a positive structure and proper operating procedures (O'Connell & Cuthbertson, 2009). The members know each other in terms of skills and capabilities, they have an effective leadership and effective communication. These factors allow the group members to jump into action and to achieve success.
Adjourning
After the group members have accomplished their goals, the team disbands. If the team members have fulfilled the group's purpose, the members may develop a ceremonial acknowledgment. However, a conflict may arise if the group has stopped to exist due to the failure of achieving goals and when the members separate ways unexpectedly.
The five-stage of gang formation has strengths in that the group members are from different back groups and as they combine multiple cultures, they share knowledge and skills, form social cohesion and become more productive. They understand each other's strengths and weaknesses and forms positive dynamics. The team members also accomplish their goals not only by understanding the destination of the group but also by trusting each other (O'Connell & Cuthbertson, 2009). However, the theory has some weaknesses in that there is a power struggle where people want to be in charge of the group. The conflict may result in a dysfunctional team where members lack commitment, avoid accountability and lack of trust.
There are three main processes by which the social disorganization theory can be attributed to modern-day gangs. The first is family processes- family disruption results in lack of control structures toward youth’s behaviors and lack of capable guardianship which leads to criminal victimization. In other words, family management practices play role in reducing gang violence through monitoring and supervision of behaviors (Piquero, 2016). However, lack of parental attachment and paternal disciple increases delinquency. Second is neighborhood processes-the community should have an informal control mechanism to supervise youth groups, offer support and form social cohesion with them. Lack of these networks may give the youths an opportunity to engage in robbery and other delinquent behaviors (Piquero, 2016). Third is economic deprivation-poor social-economic status and economic inequalities deny the youths the opportunity to engage in constructive things. Thus, the higher poverty level forces them to engage in violent crimes to sustain their lives.
The primary goal of the social disorganization theory explain the hot spots nor the gang set space for gang activity, rather, it tends to show that the root cause of gang voidance among youths is lack of social connectedness. In other words, delinquency and gang formation are influenced by factors such as economic deprivation, racism, war, community fragmentation, family disruptions, lack of social control from the neighborhoods and more (Piquero, 2016). Even though crime hotspots matters, social environment influences the deviant behaviors.
References
O'Connell, T. S., & Cuthbertson, B. (2009). Group dynamics in recreation and leisure: Creating conscious
groups through an experiential approach. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Piquero, A. R. (2016). The handbook of criminological theory. Chichester, West Sussex : Wiley-Blackwell,
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