Questions and Topics We Can Help You To Answer:
Paper Instructions:

The impact of climate change on international business strategies

Questions and Topics We Can Help You To Answer:
Paper Instructions:
Competition Overview:
1.    Design a miniature farming system by choosing among management options for potted lettuce production (1 plant per gallon pot is your “farm”).
2.    Since this is an online course, actual plant care is not required for this project and will instead be done by the teaching team. You will essentially act as the farm manager – making decisions about production – and our teaching team will act as the farm hands implementing your choices.
3.    Each management choice must be justified with science-based evidence and written in the form of a testable hypothesis.
4.    Your objective: Design a lettuce production system that provides the optimum balance of productivity, input-use efficiency, and profitability. 
5.    Based on lettuce data collected, student “farms” will be ranked (1=best) according to performance for each of three categories: 1) productivity (greatest marketable yield), 2) input-use efficiency (combined measure of greatest fertilizer and water input efficiency), and 3) profitability (greatest net income per gram of lettuce produced). The student with the lowest combined score will be crowned the Sustainable Lettuce Champion. 
Management Options:
1.    Nitrogen Fertilizer Source (1 point)
a.    Mineral fertilizer ($0.005/g of N)
b.    Organic fertilizer ($0.015/g of N)
c.    Integrated mix of mineral + organic fertilizer ($0.010/g of N)

Hypothesis: (1 point)

Science-based justification (including ≥1 source): (3 points)


2.    Nitrogen Fertilizer Rate (1 point)
a.    Zero
b.    0.5 g N per pot
c.    1 g N per pot
d.    2 g N per pot

Hypothesis: (1 point)

Science-based justification (including ≥1 source): (3 points)
3.    Biological Inoculants (1 point)
a.    None
b.    Mycorrhizal fungi (MF) ($0.05 per pot) (https://www.amazon.com/Endo-Mycorrhizae-species-lb-package/dp/B008B04HD2) 
c.    MF + Trichoderma fungi + Bacillus bacteria ($0.10 per pot) (https://www.amazon.com/Real-Growers-Recharge-8oz/dp/B00J1CAEIG) 

Hypothesis: (1 point)

Science-based justification (including ≥1 source): (3 points)

4.    Irrigation (1 point)
a.    Water to field capacity (water until draining from bottom of 1 gallon pot; approximately 175 mL H2O) every day ($0.004 per gallon of water) 
b.    Water to field capacity (approximately 175 mL H2O) every second day ($0.004 per gallon of water) 
c.    Water to field capacity (approximately 175 mL H2O) every third day ($0.004 per gallon of water) 

Hypothesis: (1 point)

Science-based justification (including ≥1 source): (3 points)



Sustainable Lettuce Competition – Part 2
Plants, Landscapes, & the Environment, HORT 100, Spring 2020
Dr. Sam Wortman, University of Nebraska – Lincoln; 25 points

Costs and revenues: Costs used to calculate net income are provided in Part 1, and revenues included:
•    Conventional ($3.00/lb) - No management choice restrictions 
•    Organic ($4.50/lb) - All management choices must conform to USDA National Organic Program Guidelines https://www.ecfr.gov/cgi-bin/text-idx?rgn=div5&node=7:3.1.1.9.32 
Data calculations provided include individual averages for: 1) yield (g/pot), 2) irrigation efficiency (g lettuce/oz), 3) N fertilizer efficiency (g lettuce/g N), 4) gross revenue ($/pot), and 5) net income ($/pot). Your task is to use these averages to explore effects of each management choice across the entire class data set. To do this, you will need to calculate averages and standard errors for all class data within individual management choices. This will be demonstrated during lecture. 
Analysis and Interpretation: Based on analysis of all class data:
1.    Create graphs demonstrating the effect of nitrogen source and rate on:
a.    Lettuce yield (2.5 points)
b.    Nitrogen input efficiency (2.5 points)
c.    Net income (2.5 points)

2.    Create graphs demonstrating the effect of biological inoculants on:
a.    Lettuce yield (2.5 points)
b.    Net income (2.5 points)

3.    Create graphs demonstrating the effect of irrigation rate on:
a.    Lettuce yield (2.5 points)
b.    Irrigation input efficiency (2.5 points)
c.    Net income (2.5 points)

4.    Based on data and graphs above, what recommendations would you make to a lettuce grower interested in sustainable lettuce production with regard to:
a.    Nitrogen source? (1 point)
b.    Nitrogen rate? (1 point)
c.    Biological inoculants? (1 point)
d.    Irrigation rate? (1 point)

5.    Who was the Sustainable Lettuce Champion? Use data provided to rank each “farm” for yield, overall input efficiency (average of irrigation and N input efficiency), and net income. Average those rankings as an integrated measure of sustainability and determine the winner. (1 point)

Questions and Topics We Can Help You To Answer:
Paper Instructions:

Why Environmental Health and Safety is Important in a hospital setting.

Must talk about Respiratory protection. Respirators for employees (PAPR Respirators). along with others you come up with.

Questions and Topics We Can Help You To Answer:
Paper Instructions:

Describe what you find interesting and relevant about the Western Area Power Administration using the following website. http://www.wapa.gov/

The highest population in India is dependent on agriculture where they are the largest producers of wheat and rice. About 55% of the people are farmers. India is one of the largest producers of wheat and rice. Among the 29 states in India, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan, Haryana, and Bihar are the largest wheat-producing countries, and West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, and Punjab are the largest rice-producing countries. The crops are sold to traders and governments at a fixed minimum price, for domestic use, and exported. Farmers in India produce crops and produce milk, sugar cane, peanuts, vegetables, fruits, beans, jute, and cotton. According to data from the Brand Equity Foundation of India, during 2019-20, farmers produced 28567 million tons (M.T.) of grain, and the government predicts that the output may reach 289 tons during 2020-21.

In milk production, India produced 198 tons of milk in 2020 and is expected to increase to 211 tons by 2021. Indian farmers had 28.46 tons of sugar during the sugar cane season from October 2019 to May 2020. One of the world's largest exporters exported 38.54 billion U.S. dollars' worth of agricultural products in the last year of 2019. If we talk about the organic food sector, revenue in 2015 was 28 billion rupees (39632 million U.S. dollars), and this output could reach 85,000 crore rupees (10.73 billion U.S. dollars) every ten years by 2025. Thus, indigenous farmers are working hard to boost output, contributing to a growing GDP rate in India. The Indian government issued three new laws that deprive farmers of their rights, and industrialists are responsible for every decision related to agriculture. The farmers were angry and peaceful protests began throughout the country. Most people blocked the capital, Delhi. Peasant protests spread internationally and became the largest protest in Indian history after India's independence (Gill, 2020, December 11). The protest in the country are as a result of the Agriculture beneficial influence on the growth of India and the effects of the passed laws to agriculture.

In late November 2020, India had the largest demonstration in human history. Thousands of people, especially farmers, marched in Parliament against the new regulations. More than 255 million citizens went on a 24-hour solidarity strike. As a result, popular mass movements have gained popularity globally, forcing the government to meet with protesters where they are, rather than just suppressing and cruelly treating them. Farmers oppose legislation that removes crop sales controls to allow private purchasers to gain opportunity in a market overwhelmed by unrestricted endowments for quite a long time (Garg, 2020, December 9). Farmers say that long-term legislative changes to guarantee the situation of small landowners in the market may put large organizations and land in danger. Three disputable farm bills acquainted in the offset of September led to this great protest. The law plans to advertise and disperse farm products and empowers privately owned businesses to buy crops at market costs and eliminate fundamental government limitations.  The farmers contend that the neoliberal changes in the current public frameworks in Punjab, Haryana, and Northwest Regions [CITATION Nav20 \l 2057] have fundamentally been destroyed, which will prompt insecurity and heighten poverty levels for the vast majority who rely upon farming. They believe that this is an immediate danger to the whole region's economic livelihood and a threat to its dependability. The social movement’s slogan refers to the battle for opportunity and livelihood of the majority of Indians.

The new agricultural reforms of Indian critics have reorganized the agri-food industry, benefiting private traders and multinational companies and ultimately harming the interests of farmers. In September 2020, the Indian government passed three parliamentary agricultural reform bills, which would liberate the expansive agrarian area and permit farmers to sell straightforwardly to private purchasers rather than state-directed business sectors. This requires them to go into legitimate concurrences with organizations before the arranged collection. As per [CITATION THO21 \l 2057], the focal point of India's political economy and ecological examination keeps on supporting the neoliberal strategies that have been endorsed by major national parties (the People's Party and Congress) since India's early opening of its economy to a free market. The 1990s. Such policies have never received large-scale support in India, and neoliberal reforms are particularly unpopular in the agricultural sector, which still employs more than half of India's labor force. The policies most extensively applied to the industrial and financial sectors in previous rounds of liberalization were, for example, capital liberalization instead of agriculture (Garg, 2020, December 9).

The Modi government has now suddenly implemented neoliberal policies in the agricultural sector, which were converted into the Farmers' Bill of June this year in Parliament in three months. [Citation Jas20 \l 2057] The bill aims to strike a fatal blow to the significant and government-controlled agricultural market (known as the APMC marketing field). The bill also provided free access to agrarian companies that primarily control and use the rural manufacturing market to increase revenue. Under the neoliberal system, the state rejects public circles and allows commercial power to manipulate the situation. They saw that this movement was not aimed at nationalism but it own interest. This movement is rooted in the Punjab Sikh experience and is now supported by people across India who are tired of national and socio-economic despair and social discord. This is a social movement led by a community that has been oppressed -by the split in 1947, and in 1984-if it is not responsible to the Indian state, who knows the corner. Recognizing the state violence in Punjab in the 1980s allows us to understand the concerns of Punjab farmers about the central government. It also shows how the Indian government used violence against its people. Most importantly, it predicted what would happen in today's India if the Indian government did not pursue its undemocratic behavior.

Concerns raised by farmers

Unfortunately, despite making a considerable contribution to India's GDP, farmers are still struggling to make ends meet at this time. The new bill passed by the Prime Minister without discussing it with cabinet ministers or the state government made me wonder what democracy means. Mr. Ambani and Mr. Adnani, wealthy Indian industrialists, now have the right to buy crops from farmers at the prices they want. The passed bill was described in CNBC by S. Chaudhary: There is no minimum selling price. Companies can buy crops at any price they want. Traders licensed by the government are excluded from the process. They have levied a % tax, and now industrialists do not need to pay. In the event of a conflict, farmers have no right to bring any lawsuit against any industrialist who buys their crops at any given time (Fact Check Bureau, 2020, December 5). The farmers cannot burn the leftovers to prepare the following produce after the wheat harvest. The government had to pay the penalty of $210,000. Farmers in the sectors now have to prepay free electricity (Gillespie et al., December 9, 2020, np).

Farmers were devastated by the bill's public announcement. The protests began in September and lasted until the middle of November in every state. The farmers chose to demonstrate in the capital due to a lack of response from government officials. They laid down on the railway tracks to block the trains, and all government buildings were closed up. As a result, the government halted federal shipments, resulting in a coal scarcity in several regions and power outages lasting days. Farmers sought the state government several times, but they did not assist. Listening to and seeing the plight of the country's farmers is sad. The government is crooked, in an attempt to appease the wealthy while causing them to treat citizens of India with contempt, abuse, and disregard. Farmers have gathered in force and are refusing to back down until the government returns the money. They have enough food and water to last them six months, and people from all across the country are giving money and food to assist them in keeping marching. Despite the assault, the farmers are also providing food for the police and army officers who are constantly harassing them (Mohan, & Mistry, 2020).

Police Brutality

Peacefully, farmers called on the Indian government to abolish these laws but encountered water cannons, barbed wire, and the Internet being shut down. It can be seen from the photos that the police are ruthless in using water canyons to attack them in the cold weather. The tear gas bomb was dropped on the border between Punjab and Haryana, Concrete barriers and electrical wires were put in place, and people later broke them. In this assault, an old man was beaten mercilessly and injured his legs, hands, eyes, and back. But there is no force enough to stop the farmers from claiming their rights. On December 1, 55-year-old farmer Sajjan Singh died. He fell ill from the cold water cannon and was pronounced dead in the hospital where the protesters blamed the fatal encounter between the police and farmers in Haryana. Dhanna Singh, Gurjant Singh, Lakhvir Singh, and Janak Singh were the other four farmers who died due to the unbearable fight with the police (Jagga, & Dayal, 2020, December 3).

Images of unarmed farmers brutally treated by the police recalled last year’s “black lives matter” demonstration, which also brought tear gas and police brutality against peaceful protesters marching for racial justice. Like Americans, Indians had deep problems with the meaning of a multi-religious, ethnic and racial democracy (Sidhu, 2020, December 4). The demonstrations encompassed an inclusive multi-religious justice movement in India, which plays a significant role for women and castes as the marginalized. In particular, religious minorities led the campaign. Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi and his team used the same language to convince their people that peaceful protesters posed a threat, both recurring like Donald Trump, and equally harmful (Modi is also associated with the Hindu nation. The activists are connected, and their conservatism is on par with the white supremacists abroad). Just like the unprovoked atrocities of the police and the viciousness of the citizens in the summer protests.

India's winter protests were also crowded. This is armed nationalism, realized by nationalism. We can also link the farmers' protests with the protests that have continued since the Burmese army seized control. The military supported the opposition, demanded the resumption of elections, and claimed that bribery was widespread. The Election Commission has no evidence to support these arguments. The coup took place at the opening of the new parliamentary session (Sidhu, 2020, December 4).

The farmers' demonstrations can also be linked to the continuing protests in Myanmar since the military took power. The military backed the opposition, asking that elections be held again and alleging massive bribery. The electoral commission provided no proof to back up its claims. The coup took place when a new legislative session began. The movement against the coup was the most powerful since the so-called Safran revolution in 2007 when thousands of monks rallied against military rule. Teachers, attorneys, students, bankers, and government officials are among the demonstrators. Military restrictions have been imposed, including collecting regulations (Gill, 2020, December 11). To disperse protestors, security officers deployed water cannons, rubber bullets, and live bullets increasing brutality to the citizen.

However, the protests are also receiving considerable opposition due to the current covid 19 pandemics affecting the world. The protestors do not seem to be shaken by anything, as in July this year, they were encountered with heavy rains that did not seem to bother them. With over 290,000 citizens dead due to covid 19, the farmers ought to be more careful. Although images show that only a few make an effort to cover their mouths and noses with the larger population walking around with theirs uncovered. However, the farmers warned the government that going back was not an option until the reforms were made (Fadnavis, 2020, December 1). Singh and other volunteers created a clinic for protestors and argued that they took random temperature checks and tests to ensure they were okay. He warned the government, saying to D.W. that "this is unlike any protest the world has seen before. It is not a matter of days or months; the farmers are ready to stay here for years if that's what it takes to preserve their livelihood."

Farmers attempted meetings with the government.

The government and farmers' groups agreed to meet and talk about the bills. Farmers have pushed for repeal, but the government has proved uncooperative. According to Chanda Singh, government authorities are unwilling to listen, leaving farmers with little choice except to demonstrate. The farmers then appealed to other Indian people to join them in a countrywide lockdown scheduled for December 8, 2020. The government's next meeting was scheduled for December 9, 2020. Toll plazas would be free of charge across the country. The farmers were hoping that the 6th round of meetings would result in a resolution. If not, they will continue to peacefully demonstrate until the legislation is repealed. Since the legislation was signed into law in June of this year, there have been continued demonstrations. However, the government is attempting to persuade the public that farmers may sell their products for whatever price they choose because there is no minimum sale price. Farmers, on the other hand, argue that the buyers will make the final choice. This might lead to the seller bidding as little as possible (Choudhary, December 3, 2020).

Farmers' protest receives international support.

Because it isn't only India's issue, in a world where autoeroticism, propaganda, human rights breaches, and anti-democratic behaviors are on the rise, putting an end to right-wing nationalism is in everyone's best interests. Allowing it to spiral out of control is hazardous for all of us, especially in the world's greatest democracy. India appears to be moving in response to our plan. We are in danger of losing a friend because a repressive country cannot equal an open democratic democracy. With almost 1.4 billion Indians, we're talking about a fragile country and restricts fundamental liberties for a sixth of the world's population.

Canada's Prime Minister, Justin Trudeau, has stated that Canada would always back peaceful protests, and Canadian legislators have expressed worry over police brutality in India. He went on to say that instead of using force, the government should engage with the farmers and utilize negotiation to reduce the chaos. U.K. legislators backed Canada's stance. The Indian administration, on the other hand, did not take kindly to this remark, calling it "unwarranted" and "misinformation" about India (Dawn, 2020).  This will eventually damage the connections between the two countries. In March 2021, the farmers in India felt motivated to continue protesting for their rights, for they felt that they were not alone in the fight to remove the bills. They were thankful for Canadian supporters where some people in India felt that worldwide televisions were covering the protest more than that their own.

There are signs that the farmers' unions are fracturing, with several sections open to the idea of ending the demonstrations provided the government makes the minimum purchase price of agricultural products the minimum support price (MSP). On the other hand, other farmers' organizations backed the federal government's support for the three farm legislation passed by Parliament in September. The deadlock between the farmer's unions and the government has never been resolved through talks (Fadnavis, 2020, December 1). According to the Prime Minister, these measures may result in a "transformative change" in Indian agriculture, possibly doubling farmers' earnings someplace, somewhere, sometime. These restrictions and their long-term influence on the agricultural system must be understood in light of the government's expectations that this policy requirement will quadruple farmers' earnings and the subterranean revolution (Narayanan, 2020).

Conclusion

The current event in India protests has demonstrated that the country is no longer a democratic country since choices are taken by businessmen rather than debated in Parliament. Government is no longer for the people, by the people, and for the people. With their judgment, the Indian government demonstrated that every sector belonged to the wealthy, and the poor have no claim to their lands and production. Farmers used to be self-sufficient and worked on their terms, which is no longer the case. The demonstration has enraged the country and Indians in many places across the world. Farmers have resolved to keep protesting until the government meets their demands. The government, on the other hand, is unwilling to collaborate. The brutal means used to disperse a peaceful demonstration are unacceptable, and governments worldwide have condemned it. India is currently dealing with a significant political crisis and a worldwide epidemic. India's inhabitants have lost faith in the government, which is one of the primary reasons the nation has remained a developing country for the past 70 years, as educated and competent people leave for a better future. Indian politics has become crooked and dominated by the wealthy. Farmers have sworn to continue peaceful protests until the government agrees to their demands. Due to massive gatherings around the country, this will impact the country's economy and aggravate the epidemic due to the high dependence of the country's economy on agriculture. I hope the farmers achieve their goals, that India will be ruled by honest, educated, and motivated people in the not-too-distant future.

Works cited

“Choudhary, S.R.(December3, 2020). India’s Government to Meet Farmers as Thousands Protest against Farm Reforms.”

“Fact Check Bureau.(2020, December 5). Fact Check: Fictitious Post about Tomar Linking Adani, Ambani with Farm Laws Goes Viral.”

“Garg, A. (2020, December 9). What Does the MS Swaminathan Report Say About Reforms

“Gill, N. (2020, December 11). A Popular Upsurge against Neoliberal Arithmetic in India.”

“Haritas, K. (2020). The Uneven Pattern of Farm Protests across India Reflects Flawed Food Corporation Procurement.”

“Jagga, R., & Dayal, S.(2020, December 3). Another Farmer Dies at Tikri Border Protest Site. The Indian EXPRESS.”

“Mohan, D., & Mistry, J. (2020). Farm Protests Reflect India’s Worst Failing: A Broken FarmerState Contract.”

“Sidhu, J. S. (2020, December 4). Farmer Protests Questions Indian State’s Neo-Liberal Policies. Retrieved from Counter Currents.org: Farmer Protests Questions Indian State’s Neo-Liberal Policies.”

Das, byAyaskant, et al. What Does the MS Swaminathan Report Say About Reforms Proposed by Farm Laws? December 9 2020, www.the leaflet.in/what-does-the-ms-Swaminathan-report-say-about-reforms-proposed-by-farm-laws/#.

Indian Farmers Vows to Keep Protesting after Talks with Gov't Fails. Aljazeera.”

Proposed by Farm Laws? leaflet.” https://www.theleaflet.in/what-does-the-msswaminathan-report-say-about-reforms-proposed-by-farm-laws/#

Climate Change

Introduction

Climate change is real and scary when you think about it. Even scarier is the man-made climate change caused by human activities. What is alarming the most is the temperature rise of the earth that gets worse by day. The fuel we use to power our homes, cars, among other things is causing more heat on the planet and endangering the environment. The temperature rise is causing a rise in the ocean and this may cause the beautiful beaches that we love and enjoy, take vacations to enjoy the fresh breeze and air to be no more. Aquatic species that make the oceans complete will become history if human beings don’t stop contributing to climate change.

Climate change

The earth contains elements such as water vapor and various gases whereby some of the gases in the air hinder the escape of heat. Some of the gases that stay semi-permanently in the air and fail to react to the fluctuations in temperature cause climate change. Gases that contribute to the greenhouse effect which causes climate change are water vapor which is the most greenhouse gas (Brooks & Boeger 2019). Carbon dioxide is another gas that is released from natural methods. Methane is formed by natural causes such as human actions and nitrous oxide is formed by cultivating the soil. According to (United Nations: SDG 2015), human actions are altering the ordinary greenhouse by the burning of fuels which increases the concentration in the atmosphere resulting in global warming.

Climate change effects

It causes changes in water resources because of the rising temperature. It causes food shortage leading to drought in some areas because of the climate conditions. Health problems such as waterborne diseases, poor quality of air, and diseases transmitted by insects (Brent, McGee, McDonald, & Rohling 2018). The environment and the ecosystems have also being impacted by climate change. Habitats are being altered, events such as flowering, egg-laying for birds are also changing. Oceanic changes are also happening and because of the carbon dioxide that is being released in the atmosphere, the ocean is becoming more acidic which is a threat to marine life.

Mitigation of climate change

Mitigating climate change involves decreasing radiations and stabilizing the levels of taking in greenhouse gases in the air. This will be achieved by reducing the sources of these gases such as stop the burning of fuels and stabilize greenhouse levels to avoid human interference with the climate. Improving the ecosystem for example by planting trees and other vegetation even in the urban areas will contribute to improved air quality and will regulate climate (Baro et al., 2014). It will also reduce air pollution levels and offset greenhouse gas emissions in the cities.

Conclusion

Climate change causes immense negative impacts on the environment, animals, and even human beings. Some of the effects of climate change on living things lead to death. This brings the attention that human beings need to stop burning fuels, coal, and any other gas that could cause climate change. To save the environment and the people living in it, we need to plant trees to improve the air quality and this includes no cutting of trees. We need to keep enjoying our beaches and make more memories without worrying that maybe one day we will have no beach to visit. It is therefore our responsibility to take care of our environment and make sure the people close to us do the same.

References

Baro, F., Chaparro, L., Gomez-Bagethun, E., Langemeyer, J., Nowak, D. J., & Terradas, J.

(2014). COntribution of Ecosystem Service to Air Quality and Climate Change: Mitigation Policies: The case of Urban Forests in Barcelona, Spain. Ambio , 43 (4), 466-479.

Brent, K., McGee, J., McDonald, J., & Rohling, E. J. (2018). International law poses problems

for negative emissions research. Nature CLimate Change , 8, 451–453.

Brooks, D. R., & Boeger, W. A. (2019). Climate change and emerging infectious diseases:

Evolutionary complexity in action. Current Opinion in Systems Biology , 13, 75-81.

United Nations: SDG. (2015). Goal 13: CLimate Change. Retrieved from

https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/topics/climatechange

 Environmental Science on Pollution

Introduction

The article is about air pollution and the impact it has both indoors and outdoors. Air pollution can cause diseases and also affect the normal temperature. The article also focuses on the global hazard that air pollution has, the environmental impact it causes, and eventually what can be one to solve the problems. Air pollution according to the article is a health hazard that is dangerous and causes death and therefore important to find solutions for the hazard.

Air pollution is a combination of particles and gases such as smoke, carbon dioxide, and methane among others that can reach dangerous concentrations indoors and in the open. Air pollution is a health hazard and research shows that poor outdoor air is a cause of premature deaths. Indoor smoke is a major health risk to individuals who use charcoal, kerosene among others (Nunez 2019). Air pollution is associated with inclined rates of cancer, respiratory, and heart diseases resulting from long term exposure. Air pollutants cause environmental effects such as climate change. Carbon dioxide, methane, and sulfur dioxide are some of the gases that cause climate change. Countries have come up with strategies to tackle the different types of air pollution to improve air quality. For indoor solutions, people should increase ventilation, use purifiers among other ways to prevent indoor pollution.

Due to the great impact air pollution has on people and the environment, preventive strategies, and policies should be implemented and made a priority (Nunez 2019). The many diseases and deaths caused by air pollution should be an eye-opener that it is a health threat and should be addressed. People should also follow the policies set to help curb this problem. A solution to prevent gases that cause climate change being released into the atmosphere should be looked into.

Conclusion

Indoor and outdoor air pollution cause diseases and climate changes. It is a health hazard that causes premature death through the dangerous gases that are released in the atmosphere. It is associated with diseases such as cancer and respiratory diseases that result from long term exposure. Preventive measures and policies need to be implemented to help curb indoor and outdoor air pollution.

References

Nunez, C. (2019). Climate 101: Air Pollution. National Geographic, 4. Retrieved from

https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/global-warming/pollution/

 A persuasive fact-based argument for an environment cause

 Do you know that the environment keeps us alive?  We should care for the environment because it provides us with basic needs (Cision PR Newswire, 2019).  Every day, human beings interact with the environment and by the end of the day, human actions such as burning fossil, pollution, deforestation, and others endanger everything.  L. Ron Hubbard said that if you want to be happy in life, protect the environment (Cision PR Newswire, 2019). Human beings have the responsibility to take care of the environment. States such as California and Seattle have recognized that protecting the environment is the way to happiness and now they have come up with initiates such as cleanups including picking up litter, cleaning up encampments, and other activities.

  We should take care of the environment because;

• It is our home-we need to make our home more clear and habitable
• Avoid negative occurrences such as a rise in earth's temperature which may cause global warming, food shortage, and floods
• Protect the ecosystem
• Protect the diversity
• Protect essential raw materials
• We have a moral obligation to do so (Crowdstrike, 2020).

 How should we take care of the environment for it to last longer?

 Animal species provide many benefits to human being such as food and recreation.  Thus, one way to protect the environment is to protect the ecosystem. Human activities have destroyed the marine ecosystem by activities such as hunting, overfishing, pollution, tourism, and more. However, there is evidence that one way of environmental conservation is habitat maintenance (Commonwealth of Australia, 2003). The local communities should come up with development projects to protect the marine ecosystem. For example, the marine protected area initiative should provide education and training for protecting marine species, regulate marine tourism, control fishing, and other activities. Without doubt, taking of the environment through protecting the marine species will contribute to food security, public health, and opportunities (Commonwealth of Australia, 2003).  Remembers that happiness comes through protecting the environment. Therefore, let us all protect the marine wildlife for a better future. Let us encourage our friends to join conservative projects to keep the species alive in future generations. As teenagers, you will get a valuable opportunity to gain professional field experience which will help engage in community development and wildlife conservation. I would encourage each and every one to partner with the communities to protect the marine species.

 The second way we can protect the environment is through planting and protecting trees.  Do you know that trees provide health and social well-being through reducing air pollution,  reducing particulate matter, reducing negative thoughts, increasing life satisfaction,  reducing cardio-metabolic condition,  providing  physical and mental health,  and creating livable communities (Turner‐Skoff  & Cavender, 2019). Since maintaining the environment brings happiness, we all have the obligation to care for trees.  As teenagers, it is important to get involved in rural and urban development and plant trees for a better world. Before protecting the external environment, start by protecting the environment around you; that is, plant trees in your home environment, and then in your community. Note that the environment is made up of living and non-living things.  If people protect and plant trees, it means that all things within the environment will survive (Turner‐Skoff & Cavender, 2019). For example, the environment will be full of leaf-covered branches and animals will survive by eating leaves. In general, protecting the environment entails planting trees and protecting the species and the activities should be associated with sustainability goals.

References

Cision PR Newswire.  (2019). Earth Day: Taking Care of the Environment Today and Throughout the Year.  https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/earth-day-taking-care-of-the-environment-today-and-throughout-the-year-300836058.html

 Commonwealth of Australia. (2003). The benefits of MARINE PROTECTED AREAS.  https://www.environment.gov.au/system/files/resources/5eaad4f9-e8e0-45d1-b889-83648c7b2ceb/files/benefits-mpas.pdf

Crowdstrike. (2020). Caring for the Environment: 8 reasons to Protect & Sustain Earth.  https://greencoast.org/caring-for-the-environment/

Turner‐Skoff, J. B., & Cavender, N. (2019). The benefits of trees for livable and sustainable communities. Plants, People, Planet, 1(4), 323-335.

Saudi Arabia’s Legal Weaknesses in the Management of Non-Hazardous Solid Waste Compared to other GCC Countries

TABLE OF CONTENTS

( the weaknesses in the waste management law in Saudi Arabia in comparison with G.G.C Golf corporation countries- UAE,Oman,Bahrin,Qater,Kuwait )  

CHAPTER 1

1. Overview of non-hazardous waste management in Saudi Arabia:

1)Waste Generation

A- analysis of most prominent components nonhazardous waste

B- factors contributing to the increasing

2) waste disposal

A- collecting

B- disposing

C- Incarnation

D- The mechanism of disposal

CHAPTER 2

1. Existing Laws and Regulations on Non-hazardous solid waste in (K.S.A) :

1)  Environmental laws

2)   Sharia law

3)    Royal Decrees

4)   Ministerial Decrees

5) current legal practices waste management

CHAPTER 3

1) Waste generation by GCC countries:

A- Classification of waste into hazardous and nonhazardous waste types

B- Describe what materials can be classified under nonhazardous type

C- Nonhazardous waste generated by GCC countries. Its Composition and percentage of each component through tables

D- Municipal Waste Kg/Capita/day for each GCC country through tables

2) Disposal of nonhazardous waste by GCC countries

A-Discuss various disposal methods of solid waste by GCC countries compared to those in Saudi Arabia

 B-Waste Handling and Separation

C- Collection, Transport and Transfer of Solid Wastes

D- Final Disposal: Landfill

E- Geographical distribution of landfills sites and their design technicalities to handle each waste type

F- Recycling of plastic waste

3- The environmental impact of current disposal methods

A- Human toxicity potential

B- Abiotic depletion potential indicators

C- Acidification potential indicators

CHAPTER 4

• Modern approaches in waste management practices in KSA in comparison to GCC countries and related enforcing laws.

A-Anaerobic digestion; Shifting from dumping to engineered landfill systems.

1. Biogas up-gradation
2. Methane conversion to methanol (Liquid fuel)

B Pyrolysis: converting plastic waste into liquid fuel

1. Value-added products of pyrolysis 
2. Catalytic pyrolysis: emphasis on Saudi Arabian natural zeolite

2 Needs for Plastic Recycling in KSA

A-Regulations and initiatives for recycling

B-Life Cycle Assessment of Recycled Plastics

C-Challenges resulting from vast urban developments and unsustainable lifestyle

CHAPTER 5

Solid Waste Management Challenges in KSA and GCC

• Key Challenges

A-Challenges posed by solid waste to governments and communities

B- Lack of solid waste management framework

C- Ineffective legislative framework for solid waste management

D- Inadequate waste management infrastructure

• The need for sustainable development agenda in solid waste management

A-Regulations standards and framework for sustainable solid waste management

B- Recycling initiatives

C- Waste strategies/management infrastructure

CHAPTER 6

 The Supreme Council of the GCC countries and its reforms related to MSW

1- Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC)

• political and economic alliance of six Middle Eastern countries

(Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, the United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Bahrain, and Oman)

• The purpose of the GCC is to achieve unity among its members based on their common objectives and their similar political and cultural identities, which are rooted in Arab culture.
• Legal cooperation and responsibilities of the Supreme Council

  2-   Construction and Demolition debris (C&D) as major component of municipal solid waste and its relation to the rising trend in reconstruction or expansion of the road transportation network, and construction, renovation, demolition of old structures, and reconstruction or expansion of the road transportation network

3- The Basel Convention on the Control of Trans boundary Movements of Non-Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal of 1989

Chapter 7

Proposals for the Legal Reforms to support Improved Waste Management

1. Discuss Opportunities in the market of waste management in KSA

A- Recycling as a means of diversifying sources of revenue

B- Stimulating international companies to invest in waste management in KSA

C- Outsourcing waste management to foreign companies will reduce financial burden of government

2. Legal recommendations

A- Increase public and industrial awareness regarding transportation and disposal of municipal waste

B- Need for clearly defined laws on waste management

C- Clearly defined organizational structure and authority differences allowing local municipal councils to be independent

D- Greater diversion rate of landfills, using it as basic criterion of EIA and placing burial at the bottom of waste management hierarchy

Chapter 1: overview of the waste management in Saudi Arabia and its weaknesses.

Waste Generation:

Introduction

      Waste generation is a major social and environmental problem. There are many different kinds of waste produced, each having a different impact on the surroundings and adverse effects on human health. In addition, Waste can be hazardous and non-hazardous, depending upon its effects on the environment and health of living beings. Moreover, waste streams can be divided into two main types, streams made of materials (such as plastic or metals) and streams that are made of certain products (such as electronic waste or end-of-life vehicles) which require specific treatment and ultimately feed into materials-related streams[1] . In addition, non-hazardous waste includes plastic, glass, wood, paper, metals, and chemicals, as well as other waste materials generated by commercial, agricultural, residential, and industrial sources. Even though these wastes are categorized as non-hazardous, their improper management poses significant threats to the environment and human health[2]. However, Waste generation can be defined as "the weight or volume of materials and products that enter the waste stream before recycling, composting, landfilling, or combustion takes place"[3] .

   The waste life cycle starts with waste being generated either on land or on water. Therefore, waste generation rate is directly proportional to the rate of consumption, population growth, industrialization, economic growth, and other factors. However, urbanization is one of the primary reasons for the enormous waste generation. Because of, the promise of job, prosperity, and better living standards pulls people out of the villages and small towns into cities leading to a large population in urban areas. For further illustration, the More the number of people in a field the more the consumption of goods and products.as a result, the rate of waste generation will increase based on the increase on the consumption. Worth to be mentioned, In Saudi Arabia (KSA) along with all the reasons mentioned above, another major cause of waste generation is a large number of pilgrims every year. Thus, municipal solid waste (MSW) streams and types vary based on the factors and sources which produce it.

The Volume for the most prominent Components of Non-hazardous Solid Waste Generated in Saudi Arabia

Roadmap:

  This section will provide an overview of waste generation in KSA. It first defines the various categories of non-hazardous waste, and then describes and classifies distinct wastes into those categories. It then explores waste volume, representing the volume of different types of waste, explaining the major causes of an increase in the rate of generation.

      The composition and streams of MSW that is received at the dumping site vary based on the source, and society[4]. However, the most prominent streams and components are food waste, plastic waste, medical waste, construction waste, electronic waste, and textile waste.

              To begin with, food waste is the most significant MSW stream because it comprises about 50.6% of the total amount of M.S.W organic waste which comprises 40%[5]. Therefore, food waste plays a vital part in the management of MSW. Nonetheless, the high level of food waste is connected to misbehavior, which is associated with the Arab community's many traditions and cultural beliefs. Therefore, the government is required to improve public awareness to curb food waste in KSA[6]. Because, high food waste volumes call for strict laws and regulations to combat such challenge. For instance, the United States' agriculture department (USDA), in collaboration with Environmental Protection Agency (E.P.A.), announced a reduction of food waste and loss in September 2015, and they aim at a 50% reduction by the year 2030[7]. Unfortunately, the Ministry of Municipality and Rural Affairs (MOMRA) has not set goals pertaining to high food waste reduction. Thus, it is time for K.S.A. to focus on eliminating the problem mentioned above through effective governmental strategies. All stakeholders, including the government, the public, and other non-governmental organizations, should concentrate on creating efficient approaches and concepts to reduce food waste and manage non-hazardous solid waste.

   Plastic is the second largest M.S.W. stream with a 5-17% proportion[8]. It is important to note that the M.S.W. stream above imposes a significant threat across the world. According to the World Bank approximately 242 million tons of plastic wastes are produced globally[9]. Notably, this amount jeopardizes the economy, environment, as well as people's health. With that said, K.S.A. uses conventional methods to manage plastic wastes[10]. For example, the country collects different elements of the stream and dumps them in landfills without sorting or recycling[11].  However, (MOMRA) has initiated a plan to recycle plastic waste operations in Riyadh city to improve the waste management system as well as benefit from the components of this stream[12]. Even though, KSA is one-step ahead, the recycling strategy has not been fully implemented on a geographical level. Thus, scholars consider the country's waste management law weak because environmental threats still exist[13]. For example, in the COVID-19 pandemic, the failure to control it at its early stages caused difficulty in controlling it on its later stages, let alone the continuous harm, which would continue after this pandemic is solved. Thus, the K.S.A. government needs to implement the suggested recycling program to help in improving waste management techniques, which, in turn, saves the environment in general.

 Medical waste is the third MSW that affects K.S.A. Different health centers and hospitals produce up to 39419 tons of medical waste yearly[14]. With that said, the stream above can be categorized into general waste, infectious, hazardous, and radioactive waste.  Firstly, general medical waste consists of materials that are used for real purposes in different hospitals. The materials mentioned above include typical and household items. Secondly, infectious waste comprises the trash that can cause infections to the people if not correctly disposed of. These wastes consist of human tissues, blood, and other contaminated materials, which can contribute to infectious diseases to human beings[15]. It is important to understand that medical waste can be hazardous because of their danger to people. In fact, these materials include some chemical containers, sharp surgical items, and other objects that can cause harm if not disposed of properly. Lastly, radioactive wastes are considered the most dangerous in this group[16]. If not well monitored and eliminated, radioactive wastes risky radiations that harm human beings, plants, as well as animals[17]. Thus, considering a large number of medical facilities and various types of hazardous medical waste in the country is essential. Therefore, KSA needs to come up with a comprehensive health waste management program that monitors and eliminates these wastes. People should understand that the dangers caused by the streams mentioned above decrease the quality of life, which requires from KSA to improve its environmental and waste management laws.

 Construction waste is the fourth prominent M.S.W. stream. This stream comprises debris produced during the construction, renovation as well as demolition of buildings, roads, and bridges. Research indicates that the waste mentioned above jeopardizes the environment and the waste management system[18]. For instance, debris from buildings and road construction makes the environment ugly and undesirable. What is more, wastes from construction materials can hurt people. Notably, The Gulf Cooperation Countries (G.C.C.) consistently ranks among the top 10% of per capita waste producers in the world[19]. It is essential to comprehend that approximately 120 million tons of wastes are produced in G.C.C. annually, which is categorized into 55% construction and demolition (C&D) waste, 20% municipal solid waste (M.S.W.), 18% industrial waste, and 7% hazardous waste[20]. Like other G.C.C. nations generate massive amounts of MSW, C&D waste, and industrial waste. A study that was conducted to examine 81 construction companies in the Eastern Province of KSA determined various factors that critically affect the sustainable management of C&D waste in the country. The research found that in the studied firms, only 39.5% of them had a pollution control plan for their projects[21].What is more, it was determined that 13.6% of C&D waste is recycled and reused every year, whereas the remaining 86.4% C&D waste eventually goes to the landfills[22]. Thus, it is noteworthy that most of the C&D waste in the country is a promising source of potential recyclable construction materials, such as gravel from debris, metals, and sand. However, the materials, as mentioned above, will fulfill the requirements of gravel and metal production of the KSA as well as solve the waste disposal issues along with generating considerable economic benefits[23]. Nevertheless, the country needs to concentrate on different factors that influence construction waste management practices to accomplish the goal of sustainable construction waste management. Also, K.S.A. should apply advanced methods to deal with construction waste, including on-site disposal, using the portable stone crusher, and or carry them to the construction waste treatment plant[24]. Therefore, the high volume of construction waste can be useful if the country determines effective strategies to handle it. In simple terms, the government should understand that adequate and efficient techniques are vital because construction waste can be harmful not dealt with properly.

 Electronic waste is the fifth prominent MSW stream. As a matter of fact, e-waste comprises of electronic products, including computers, television, and cell phones[25]. Due to the advancement of technology in the modern world, this type of waste has substantial threats because of its fast growth[26]. Notably, the electronic sector faces continuous innovation and improvement in technology, which contributes to the dangerous disposal of outdated devices and machines. On the same note, electronic waste can lead to different health challenges; for instance, the emission of harmful radiations is associated with cancer and other severe chronic disorders[27]. KSA produces five million tons of electronic waste, which heightens the volume of this waste up to 25% per year[28]. Hence, KSA needs to redouble its efforts and develop effective strategies as well as initiatives to recycle electronic waste[29]. For example, according to the National Conference of State Legislatures, Best Buy stores recycle old mobile phones, computers, and T.V.s while Staples stores recycle old mobile phones[30]. On the same note, at last, 25 states have legislated recycling programs for electronic waste. The programs mentioned above, and initiatives play a vital role in helping to diminish the volume of e-waste[31]. What is more, the strategies help the county benefit from recycled e-waste products. Therefore, adopting such programs in KSA will help in combating the adverse effects of e-waste products and assist in strengthening the waste management system.

 Textile waste is the last most prominent MSW stream. This stream of waste consists of 6.4% of the total available MSW[32]. Despite, the low percentage of textile waste in the MSW stream, mismanaging it can contribute to significant environmental and health problems. Therefore, textile recycling would help in waste management in different ways, including reducing the need for landfill spaces, mitigating the pressure on virgin resources, as well as encouraging the development of the additional market[33]. Following the above benefits, on March 10, 2019, MOMRA approved a plan to increase the usage of recycling programs in textile waste[34]. The plan above aims at not only taking advantage of recycled materials but also saving more spaces in landfills in Riyadh city. Nonetheless, the plan does not cover other major cities in KSA including Dammam, Jeddah, and Mecca. Simply put, MOMRA needs to develop an effective strategy that includes significant cities to overcome the issue of textile waste in the country.

Analysis for the volume of the most prominent components of non-hazardous waste generated in Saudi Arabia from environmental and legal perspective:

            Based on data given on the volume of the most prominent components of non-hazardous waste management in Saudi Arabia, there is need to advance disposal methods; these methods will assist in managing these volumes and the different types of waste generated in the MSW. Different volumes have been made on the volume of solid waste generated every year in respect to the most prominent components of non-hazardous wastes. In this case, the volume of the MSW collected in Saudi Arabia has been estimated to be increasing in the current years compared to other GCC nations. This being the case there is need for the KSA stakeholders representing the environmental waste management to come up with advanced methods of controlling these volumes. With the aim to manage these volumes there is need to include legal rules and regulations that are necessary to aid environmental management.

            Comparatively, the huge volumes of waste management have emanated from avoidable factors in the society such as, the human habits, human behaviors have highly exceeded since laws imposed in the KSA are less followed. In this case, to manage human behaviors it is important therefore to implement laws and regulations that will assist in controlling food consumption and waste management. Laws based on waste management in KSA works towards improving health safety in the kingdom.[35] It is therefore important to consider law and regulation implemented to enhance environmental improvement.

            In comparison to the volumes of MSW in KSA in respect to the most prominent components and other countries a high call for advanced methods for managing wastes is needed. High volumes of food wastes as represented by 50.6% of the total MSW organic wastes is a high level that demand for management. It is important to understand that waste mismanagement has a very serious environmental effect. Due to high volume of food waste MOMRA should pass law that will assist in regulating food wastage in the Kingdom. Introduction of laws such as ecological solid waste management act can assist in controlling generation, storage, collection, transportation, processing, and disposal of wastes. Through this process the society will be at right position of reducing waste by 50% through 2030 vision.

            Additionally, another prominent component being plastic waste that holds the second rank comprising of 5-17% in proportion have a high impact to human health.[36] In contrast, other GCC nations have a very low rate of plastic wastes as compared to KSA. This being the case the stakeholders in the K.S.A are supposed to implement ways from which plastic waste can be managed. For instance, the MSW governing stakeholder and the kingdom government should legislate law and regulations such as prohibiting use of plastic within the Kingdom. Resident should stop using plastic and instead use boxes instead of bottles.

            On the same case, medical wastes that are very dangerous cover a huge percentage that needs control and management. Research indicates 39419 tons of medical waste is produced yearly from different medical centers.[37] Implementation of laws and regulation will highly assist in mitigating health issues resulted from medical wastes. Considering the amount medical waste produced in hospitals, proper management is needed to prevent infectious diseases. Therefore, the waste management fraternity should implement methods for management purposes. Hospitals may implement an autoclave means to treat biomedical waste.

            Further, through controlling volumes generated by construction waste, the country will be at a better position preventing harm that might be accompanied by construction debris. Moreover, in comparison to other GCC countries it can be attested that a huge amount of construction waste is produced. Thus, KSA stakeholders have a mandate to ensure waste produced in construction sites are managed in the proper way. Construction waste can be controlled through reusing materials.

            Even though advancement in technology is causing people to shift from one electronic to another, there is need to manage the old used electronic. Electronic waste being one of the most prominent components of non-hazardous waste generated in Saudi Arabia, should be controlled as to reduce the amount of waste in KSA. Based on the research, KSA produces five million tons of electronic waste, which heightens the volume of this waste up to 25% per year.[38] It is therefore important to increase the means of managing electronic wastes. The country can introduce means by which the waste management can be controlled which can be done through waste recycling.   

            Textile waste consists of 6.4% of the total waste of the total MSW produced in the Kingdom of South Arabia.[39] In comparison with the other GCC countries, there is need for the KSA to come up with means of controlling waste materials being generated from the textile industries. Nevertheless, the country can also engage in implementing laws that will assist in regulating the amount of waste materials produced from the textile waste. Textile wastes can be management through burning the excess waste. Although burning the waste material can pollute environment, this is a good method that can attribute in reducing textile wastes that causes landfills in the KSA.

            Finally, in totality, large volume of waste mismanagement based on the most prominent components increases chances of hazards in human health as well as environmental dangers represented by poor management. Law implementation is the most effective means of controlling the manner by which waste can easily be controlled in the KSA. Nevertheless, in additional to law and regulations, volumes of MSW can as well be management through implementation of possible solutions such as organizing biogas production programs, implementation of waste-to-energy plans and technologies. With such solutions it will be beneficial to have an effective means of controlling waste in the community.    

Conclusion:

KSA is generating vast quantities and types of MSW every year, and with the upward trend in population growth and urbanization, the rate of waste generation is expected to increase. The Kingdom needs to put its focus on this grave issue and lead a public awareness campaign along with strict laws and regulations for improper management of the waste. Kingdom needs to re formulate its legal, prosecution, and management system governing waste management to fill up all the loopholes in the current system. In today's modern and developed world, MSW is regarded as a huge source of valuable products and energy, Countries like KSA have a vast potential to benefit from MSW by recycling and reusing it. Due to abundant portion Food in MSW, the techniques of anaerobic digestion and pyrolysis could prove to be beneficial. The current MSW practices in KSA have become obsolete and proving unsustainable against the Kingdom needs to switch to the modern techniques and new approaches to improve its waste management and to add valuable products and energy into their economy. In simple terms, the K.S.A. government should develop effective initiatives, strategies, plans, programs, and techniques to reduce the amount of waste experienced in the country.

Waste Disposal:

Overview of the Current Practices of Waste Disposal in Saudi Arabia:

  The rate of solid waste generation in KSA is 15.3 Mt/y, while the average price is 1.4kg/capita/d[40]. The solid waste consists of two major components:

• Organic Waste like food comprises of 40% of the total waste from various sources like restaurants, canteen, homes, and hotels, etc.[41]
• Plastic Waste produced from widespread use of disposable items.

Management of solid waste becomes more challenging during the Hajj annual pilgrimage because of theincreased usage of disposable items by the pilgrims. The amount of municipal waste sent to landfill sites located at Buraiman, Jeddah, is 1.5 million tons every year, while during the Hajj days, it becomes as high as 4500 tons/day.[42]

Municipal solid waste in all big cities in KSA is disposed off in a similar manner; collecting waste in large bins placed all around the residential and commercial areas, transporting waste to transfer stations, from where it is ultimately dumped at landfills specific for nonhazardous solid waste. This process is regulated on the legislative level by Local Affairs and Ministry of Municipalities[43]. In contrast, the ground level management is carried out by local municipalities, which includes the whole process from collection, transport, and disposal of waste to landfill sites[44]. The KSA currently generates about 14 million tons of MSW per year with an average of 1.4 kg/capita/day[45].

The MSW wastes of the KSA include 37% organic materials, 28.5% paper, 5.2% plastics, 8.3% mineral, 4.6% glass, 8% wood, 6.4% textile, and 2% others[46]. The above average MSW production rate is the result of the lack of community-wide programs to enrich environmental awareness, and to boost decrease of MSW generation, and to stimulate recycling.[47] Depending on the type of the waste, it can be further sent to incineration plants for combustion or compost facilities for degradation of organic waste like food into compost. Paper, metals and plastics from municipal waste are also extracted by recycling plants. Therefore, accurate information regarding sources, composition, and quantities of wastes is necessary for precise waste management.[48]

A.Mechanism of Waste Disposal

Roadmap:

 In this section, various methods for waste disposal will be discussed. It includes the complete process from the collection of waste at the bins, transportation of waste, and final disposal at the dumping sites or landfills. Depending on the type of trash, current practices in KSA of incineration, composting, and recycling will be discussed.

Collection of the Solid Waste

      Municipal solid waste is collected in containers of particular sizes, placed throughout the city.  Onsite storage of solid waste is done in containers ranging from approximately 0.25 to 5-meter cube volume capacity. Solid waste is bagged in old shopping bags, bagged in trash cans, or sometimes disposed of in bulk. This type of disposal is a significant contributor to the mixing of different kinds of waste in the onsite storage containers. This improper sorting causes problems at the later stage for the choice of disposal method.

  Second method of collecting MSW is from the onsite storage containers, that a fleet of solid waste collection vehicles, ranging from 5-10-meter cube capacity, carry the waste to transfer stations, which significantly reduces the operational cost. Majority of transfer stations are direct load, with compaction facilities, compacting solid waste to decrease its volume for further transfer. The compacted waste is then transferred to 75-meter cube trailers, which disposes the waste to the landfill site. Advanced transfer stations are under construction. The hazardous waste from hospitals and industries is collected separately and disposed at industrial waste dumps[49].

Methods of Disposal

• Disposal at landfill sites

     Municipal solid waste, collected at transfer stations, is finally disposed of at communal landfill sites. Landfilling refers to construction of well-engineered site, designed specifically to accommodate solid waste and mitigate any environmental impacts like soil, air, and water pollution resulting from dumping.[50]Landfills usually have to safeguard mechanisms like liner systems to prevent contamination of groundwater.

Landfills can be categorized as total or modified containment, uncontrolled dump, controlled, and secured release.[51] The choice of the landfill is a complicated task that depends on the type of waste and integration of social, political, environmental, and ecological variables.[52] Although landfill is the least favorable method of choice for disposal of solid waste, its importance cannot be neglected.

Landfills are those areas where waste is retained into the land. Due to rapid industrialization, generation of MSW has amplified. Almost 16% of all rejected MSW is incinerated; the remainder is inclined to landfills. In landfills, the disposal of MSW is related with groundwater contamination, surface water and soils[53]. As a matter of fact, all the landfill sites in Saudi Arabia are government-owned but are operated by private contractors under civil authorities. Therefore, there is high level of bureaucracy, since governmental operations tend to be dealt with in a bureaucracy manner. As a matter of fact, the governmental response to the updates and changes related to the volumes and types of MSW which enter the landfill sites is slow. Therefore, KSA needs to conduct reforms which can ensure the quick response to the changes and updates occur to the volume and types of MSW.

Decomposition at landfills occurs at two stages:

• Aerobic bacteria act on the waste to remove oxygen, which lasts for week[54].
• Fermentative and hydrolytic bacteria hydrolyze polymers and convert them into amino acids, long chain carboxylic acids and glycerol.[55]

Various biological treatment methods such as aerobic, anaerobic, and anoxic processes are used for the removal of biodegradable matter.[56] Landfill sites if not constructed properly can pollute soil by leachates formation.

• Composting

It involves aerobic degradation of organic solid waste like food waste and plant residues to convert into products useful for agriculture.[57] It’s an effective method to recycle wastes into useful products and reduce environmental impact at waste disposal areas.[58] In agriculture, the use of compost can positively influence the cation exchange capacity of soil, water holding capacity, organic matter status, thus providing nutrients to the plants.

Composting is an environmental friendly strategy for organic waste management, but the quality of compost produced by KSA is of low quality as compared to international standards. A recent research study analyzed chemical characteristics of 25 composts[59] produced in KSA and found out that there exists large variability in standards and chemical properties of local post as compared to that of international, which shows that there is need to maintain proper check and balance on the quality assurance procedures in order to convert it into high quality compost.

• Incineration

     Incineration is a waste treatment process that involves the combustion. It involves the combustion of waste material in a solid waste incinerator, and a type of facility designed and operated at specific conditions.[60] Around 14% of the solid waste is subjected to incineration in KSA. Incineration is carried by large scale industries[61]. Around 65-80% of energy can be recovered from burning waste material and can be used to power thermal power plants, whereas slag residues removed from the furnace can be incorporated in cement to give particular properties, while also reducing the volume of waste to 80%[62]. For example, study showed that if the city of Jeddah used the incineration method, it would produce over 180 MW of electricity, not only that but also it can produce around 11.25 MW, if it used incineration with recycling[63]. Therefore, KSA needs to consider applying such method while dealing with MSW, so it can use the high volume of MSW as a source of energy.

1. Analysis of Current Disposal Practices

This section of the paper will discuss various current solid waste disposal strategies at every step of the complete process. Specifically, the main areas of discussion will cover improper collection of solid waste and lack of public awareness, and soil and groundwater contamination. Additionally, compost quality due to current disposal practice and air pollution due to incineration practices will also be explored.

• Improper Collection of Solid Waste and Lack of Public Awareness:

Improper collection of solid waste is ubiquitous in developing countries, and its effects can be observed in nearly all these countries[64]. The methods that are applied to collect waste in KSA appear ineffective in several ways. The use of small onsite collection containers, particularly in public places, serve ineffective since they have limited capacity that makes them get filled faster, causing spillage and contamination in the adjacent places[65]. Besides, these containers may not stay in the collection site for extended periods since some people may take them and use them for other purposes. Restaurants and hotels often use massive containers for collection[66]. However, despite their sizes, they still get filled faster since their disposal rate is higher around these places. Eventually, the constant stay of solid waste may create an undesirable experience as they release the filthy smell[67].

Lack of public awareness is the leading cause of improper solid waste collection[68]. Lack of public awareness regarding ways of disposing solid waste contributes to issue associated with improper waste management[69]. The level of people’s understanding and knowledge in this country regarding the importance and implications of certain waste management program is lower. Countries like Germany and Switzerland educate people on how to dispose and handle waste; people are often made aware of separating biodegradable and non-degradable waste[70]. In Germany for example, there are local and municipal agencies that educate people how to sort and dump waste, and supply bins with varied colors to help people easily sort out waste[71]. All forms of glass, including bottles and jars belong to designated bin. Ceramics, china, mirrors and wine corks don not belong to glass bins[72]. Glass are sorted by color. Glass are deposited on bins depending on their color; there are slots for green, brown, and clear glass. Bins for glass are often dotted. People are educated to dump paper and other paper-related products, including cardboards, newspapers, and paper bags in blue bins[73]. Plastic and metallic waste are dumped in waste yellow bins. Bio stuff, including kitchen scraps, peels, and food leftovers are dumped in brown bins, though people with backyard are encourage  to dump them in compost[74]. These educational approaches has enhanced public awareness regarding waste management, and has significantly resulted in proper methods of handling waste and consequently minimizing problems associated with improper waste management[75]. However, Saudi Arabians lack this public awareness as observed in the way most of the residentsfail to have separate bins for organic and inorganic wastes; all types of waste are disposed off and collected at the same collection containers[76]. At places of residence and public institutions, waste is collected at the same collection containers; hospitals illegally dispose of sheets, syringes, diapers in the municipal collection containers, and empty bottles and cans are thrown on the streets[77]. In summary, developing countries, including Saudi Arabia, lack structured and established public awareness programs that serve to educate the general public on effective ways of collecting waste, and this leads to the improper collection of solid waste practice.

• Soil and Groundwater Contamination caused by Leachates and Methane Emissions at Landfills:

Soil and groundwater pollution is another significant environmental issue associated with current disposal practices at landfills. Various pollution agents, including solid waste, is one of the leading causes of soil and groundwater contamination[78]. Solid waste results in leachates and methane at landfills that can contaminate the soil. Leachates are regarded as highly a “concentrated soup”: meaning small amount of leachate can contaminate great amount of groundwater. Because leachate contain impurities and other toxic compounds from domestic and industrial waste, it react with groundwater contaminating it with these impurities in the process[79]. The methane gas released from these municipal landfills may react with other compounds in the landfill to form methyl hydroxyls which may percolates into the ground and react with groundwater in the process[80]. The methane gas may also diffuse into the groundwater causing it to haveundesirable smell[81]. Landfills in KSA are regarded as mature landfills, which denotes that they have limited capacity in the approaching years due to the high rate of waste disposal[82]. When these landfills exceed capacity or become a closed landfill, the land where these landfills are located cannot be used for construction since it requires a significant amount of time to refill these pits because there are continuous degrading organic materials[83].

Emission of greenhouse gases is a common occurrence at landfills; landfills serve as the second-largest emitter of greenhouse gases (CO2, CH4, and N2O)[84]. Most of these landfills lack proper ways of tapping these gases before they are released into the atmosphere. Impacts of these gases to the environment are immense; they corrode the ozone layer and react with moisture to cause acid rain, resulting in global warming[85]. When greenhouse gases react with atmospheric moisture to form acidic rain, the rain reaches the ground and seeps in into the deeper layers of the soil until it reaches layers holding the underground water[86]. Since this water percolating is acidic, it react with ground water and contaminates it in the process[87]. Most people still dump waste in non-engineered landfills in KSA, causing groundwater pollution, which may be hazardous to the environment[88]. Landfill sites and wastewater release leachate that directly pollute the soil. Pollution in the soil further results in the pollution of groundwater sources as it percolates down. Additionally, illegal disposal of waste at municipal landfills further exacerbates the issue of soil and groundwater pollution as harmful chemicals, including heavy metals, percolate into the ground posing a great health risk to human health. Therefore, the practice waste disposal at non-engineered landfills results in emissions that directly contaminate soil and groundwater.

• Low-Quality Compost:

Low-quality compost is another current disposal practice that has a negative impact on the environment. Composts produced in various parts of KSA are often low quality, which often has a harmful effect on the soil properties and, consequently, plant growth[89]. The variables used to determine the compost's quality include organic matter content, carbon to nitrogen ratio, pH, nitrate and ammonium levels, and heavy metals[90]. Poor quality compost can alter the soil pH and temperatures to levels that are not favorable for plant growth[91]. Additionally, poor quality compost does give soil all the necessary nutrients required for optimal plant growth. Most composts in this country are poor quality because all the processes required its production are not correctly followed[92]. Besides, there is tendency where people preparing compost fail to use the right compost materials to generate the compost. For example, they can include papers and clothes in compost instead of using only fruits, vegetables, plant cuttings, and other animal’ wastes that are biodegradable[93]. Doing this adversely affect the quality of the compost as it limit the activity of the soil microbes[94]. Most parts of KSA have desert climate conditions, making most parts of the country unfavorable for agriculture; only 835,000 ha is under crop cultivation[95]. Even though organic farming is highly promoted by various programs, including the 1^st National Regulation and Standards for Organic Agriculture of 2011, its application is still not viable since it is not an effective strategy[96]. Therefore, due to the limited use of composts, most composts may not be prepared in the required procedures, and this can adversely affect its quality.

• Air Pollution Due to Incineration :

Air pollution resulting from incineration is another environmental issue associated with current waste disposal practices in KSA. Incinerating to manage solid waste is often criticized since the method results in the emission of pollutant gases, including CO2, CO, N2O, CC12F2, and CH4[97]. Techniques used in incineration, including gasification, pyrolysis, and plasma arc are considered less viable solution to solid waste[98]. Burning plastics and other waste materials released toxic substances such as persistent organic pollutants, heavy metals, and greenhouse gases[99]. Another controversy is due to the fact that it results in solid remnants, including slack and bottom ash, unburned organic matter, and carbon compounds are drawn from incomplete combustion. Persistent organic pollutants released from incinerators may move along the ecological cycle and even reach the ocean threating marine life[100]. Due to these impacts, the process of incineration poses a significant risk to public health and the environment. Healthwise, incineration, create a higher occurrence of cancer and respiratory illnesses. Congenital abnormalities, hormonal defects, and enhanced sex ratio are also potential health effects[101]. In terms of the environment, the process of incineration can result in global warming, eutrophication, photochemical ozone, and acidification. In KSA, incineration is mostly applied in health institutions and some industrial plants[102]. The practice may also be used in certain residential places, though it is not common. At these incinerators, all combustible solid waste are placed at set ablaze using petrol fuel[103]. Remnants from the incinerators are often removed and dumped into landfills[104].

Government structures at the municipal level are often feeble, making the authorities’ role less pronounced. Due to a lack of robust structures, there are violations of standard waste management policies, as stated in KSA's Environmental Law[105]. People oftendispose waste at non-disposal sites illegally, resulting in significant environmental effects despite clear stipulated penalties. In summary, incineration, as one of the current disposal practices, also poses a considerable threat to the environment, particularly by causing casing air pollution.

Conclusion

In conclusion, it is reasonably conspicuous to delineate that the aspect of waste generation has turned out to be a critical societal and environmental predicament in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. In essence, there are copious diverse varieties of waste generated, with each occasioning an unlike implication on both the environment and the aspect of human well-being.

Consequently, with regard to the analysis undertaken, the findings have portrayed food waste to be the most significant MSW stream for its estimates are way higher relating to the other factors. For this explicit rationale, the national administration has been advised on enhancing the facet of public cognizance to restrain food waste in the country. The other main factors of plastic wastes, medical wastes, construction wastes, and electronic waste also ought to be dealt with appropriately for they also play an imperative role in the process of waste generation.

Primarily, the obtainable and commendable research undertaken has depicted that the element of waste recycling would offer immediate solutions in the act of managing the waste varieties in diverse techniques such as, decreasing the prerequisite for landfill spaces, lessening the pressure on virgin possessions, besides heartening the expansion of the markets.

Based on the aspect that solid waste comprises of two major components; the organic waste and the plastic waste, the mechanism of waste disposal ought to be imperative for consideration. It is evident that the municipal solid waste in the majority of the major cities in the country is disposed of similarly.  This makes it quite problematic for the administration to attend to the menace suitably. For this reason, there happens to be a prerequisite for information gathering concerning the sources and composition of wastes obligatory for defined management of waste.

CHAPTER TWO

. Existing Laws and Regulations on Non-Hazardous Waste Management in SAUDI ARABIA

. Existing Laws and Regulations on Non-Hazardous Waste Management

In this section, we will discuss different laws and regulations for the management of nonhazardous wastes at multiple levels, from environmental laws, Sharia laws, Royal Decrees, Ministerial Decrees, and an international treaty such as Basel Convention. We will discuss their objectives, implementation, and role of concerned authorities regulating their implementation.

1. Environmental Laws

In this section, various laws related to environmental protection adopted throughout the time in KSA will be discussed, keeping in view their goals, regulations, standards for waste management, and all the stakeholders subjected to these laws.

1. Environmental Standards on Material Recovery and Recycling of Waste 2012[106]

According to this law, companies under operation in KSA will have to comply with the new waste treatment and disposal procedures. It also put forward guidance standards for the development of environmental practices for recycling. Although this document doesn't have a direct impact on the industrial sector, it covers international standard waste management hierarchy related to waste prevention, recycling, and disposal. 

2. Biological Treatment Standard of 2012[107]

According to these standards laid down by the law, all the waste treatment and incineration plants must comply with the updated requirements related to the location, operation, and design of these facilities. It also provides regulations related to the treatment of decomposable solid waste. However, this law gives flexibility to these plants in the implementation, keeping in mind their operation costs. Biological treatment standard applies to both public and private facilities and doesn’t apply to home composting initiatives.

3. Standard on Waste Transportation 2012[108]

This law ensures compliance of non-hazardous, hazardous and inert waste with the updated regulations for waste transportation in KSA. It was adopted by GAMEP and monitors waste movement to protect environment and human health, defines standard requirements for hazardous materials such as classification and labeling waste to regulate its movement inside and outside KSA. Companies are required to comply with labeling, necessary documentation of the waste, drivers’ certification and training and vehicle safety standards. Main goal of these standards is to prevent accidents and facilitate trans-border movement of wastes and simplify transportation processes.

4. Wastewater Discharge Standard of 2012[109]

Companies concerned with the discharge of wastewater are subjected to this law, adopted on March 24, 2012. The goal of this law is to enable KSA in reaching to ambient water quality standards by defining specific limits on discharges, enforcing permit requirements to protect water quality. 

Government of KSA has formulated various laws ensuring compliance of public and private facilities to modern, up to date standards, establishing guidelines for environment protection practices, safe trans- border transport of hazardous wastes to avoid accidents and proper treatment of waster to protect already scarce water sources.

1. Sharia Law

Environmental protection is an integral aspect of Islam. According to the Quran, Muslims have been made stewards on Earth, which also enjoins the responsibility for Muslims to play a proactive role in environmental conservation. Muslims are repeatedly encouraged to reflect on the relationship with their surroundings and living beings and maintain ecological balance.

In this section, Sharia Law for the protection of various aspects of the environment will be discussed in the light of Quran and, sayings of Prophet Muhammad ﷺand his companions.

1. Resource Conservation

The Islamic teachings towards the conservation of natural resources are based mainly on the prohibition of over-exploitation. The Holy Quran says: "It is He who has appointed you viceroys in the earth … that He may try you in what He has given you."[110]

“O children of Adam! … eat and drink: but waste not by excess, for Allah loves not the wasters.”[111]

Extravagance in the usage of water, whether the water is scarce or abundant, is forbidden by teachings of Prophet Muhammad.It is related[112] that the Prophet passed by his companion, Sa’d, who was washing for prayer, and said:“What is this wastage, O Sa’ d?”

"Is their wastage even in washing for prayer?”, asked Sa’ d;and he said, “Yes, even if you are by a flowing river!”

2. Forbidding to Spread Corruption on the Land

According to Islam, corruption of land is a broad category that applies to anything disturbing the order and collective systems of Earth, making the life of humans or living things unsustainable. Quran says, "And do not desire corruption in the land. Indeed, God does not like corruptors."[113]

"Eat& drink from the provision of Allah and do not commit abuse on the earth, spreading corruption."[114]

3. Reduction of Waste by Encouragement to live Simple Life

Adopting a simple lifestyle is greatly stressed in Islam with the implications of less waste production at the source. It is mentioned in the Quran,“Do not be extravagant, surely Allah does not like extravagant.”[115]Reduced waste production and input demand of natural resources due to reduced consumption of the products, is a significant step towards environment conservation. Prophet Muhammad ﷺ himself led a simple life and encouraged his companions to do the same.

4. Preserving Forests and Biodiversity

One of the significant steps of Prophet Muhammad ﷺ was to afforest an area called “Zuraybu’t Taweel” to protect wildlife. He announced, “Whoever cuts a tree here should plant a new tree instead.” The area shortly converted into a forest with this regulation. Prophet Muhammad ﷺ also granted the status of ‘haram’ (under protection) to an area of 12-mile distance from the center of Medina city and forbade killing animals or cutting trees within its radius.

Many sayings of Prophet Muhammad ﷺ encourage planting trees. He said,“If a Muslim plant a tree or grow grains and a bird, a person or an animal eats from it will be counted as a charity for him.”[116]

“If any of you have a date sapling on the doomsday, he should plant it -if possible.”[117]

"Whoever plants a tree is rewarded by Allah as much as the produce is grown in that tree."[118]“Whoever plants a tree and diligently looks after it until it matures and bears fruit is rewarded,”[119]

5. Cleanliness

When Abu Musa was sent to Al-Basrah as the new governor, he addressed the people saying: “I was sent to you by ‘Umar ibn Al-Khattab in order to teach you the Book of your Lord [i.e. the Qur’an], the Sunnah [of your Prophet], and to clean your streets.”

Abu Hurairah reported that the Messenger of Allah ﷺ forbade that a person relieve himself in a water source or on a path or in a place of shade or in the burrow of a leaving creature.  These values highlight Islam’s stress on avoiding pollution of critical resources and importance of cleanliness.Prophet ﷺ stated: “Beware of the three acts that cause you to be cursed: First, relieving yourselves in shaded places (that people utilise), in a walkway or in a watering place……”

“Removing harmful things from the road is an act of charity (sadaqah).[120]”

At the time of emergence of Islam in 6th century AD, there weren't any significant environmental issues. But the matter is dealt in Islam in detail. Nevertheless, Islamic Sharia doesn't define specific punishment, and are more left to context dependent implementations as deemed necessary. Islam made cutting down of trees, damaging crops or harming animals war crime even in the intensity of the war. By warning about hell fire for the people cutting down trees without any reason and rewards on planting trees, Islam encouraged its followers towards environmental protection. Punishments in Islam focus on violators of collective systems, disruptors of the natural, balanced order of the Earth.

Islamic teachings on protection of environment instill environmental consciousness in its followers. The concern of Islam towards environment is a universal one and transcends all geographical barriers and applies to not only humans but all living beings and ecological systems.

iii. Royal Decrees

In this section, Royal decrees, the authority of these decrees, and their implementation will be discussed We will also discuss royal decrees for the protection of the environment and its objectives.

A decree is a rule of law, defined according to certain procedures as dictated by the Constitution and issued by the head of the State, which can be the President of a Republic, King or a Monarch. Decrees are comparable to Executive orders issued by President of the United States.

Royal decrees (nizam) are the main source of laws in KSA, issued by the King. However, they are referred to as regulations rather than laws and are subordinate to Sharia.[121] Royal decrees support Sharia in aspects of commercial, corporate, and labor law.[122]

Environmental Act No. 193, promulgated by Royal Decree No. M/34 of 2001[123]

This Act, passed on 28 Rajab 1422 H (15 October 2001), by the Royal Decree, made environmental planning integral part of agricultural, industrial and urban development, stressed on sustainable usage of natural resources, protection of human health from negative effects of environmental threats and increased awareness of public on environmental issues. It defines clearlywhat comes under the category of waste, waste products classified as hazardous, lays out standards for waste generators, waste transporters, hazardous waste management facilities, and standards for hazardous waste management. It also stresses to develop monitoring tools, conduct environmental studies, appropriate training programs to develop capabilities in preserving the environment, apply technologies for the recycling, safe transportation and disposal of construction materials and debris and preventing the disposal of radioactive and hazardous wastes in the territorial waters.

Royal decrees give significant authority to the King in KSA in the commercial, corporate, and labor sector but are subordinate to Sharia. Royal decree for environmental protection serves as a road map and guiding foundation for all environmental laws and practices in Saudi Arabia.

iii. Ministerial Decree

In this section, we will discuss ministerial decrees, the authority figures with the power to implement these decrees, especially those related to conservation of the environment.

A Ministerial Decree is an order issued by the ministry, imposed under the authority of ministry's chief, administrator or secretary, delegating the task to impose a mandate.

In the areas of energy and land, the Royal Family, which occupies all the ministries, have significant authority. These regulations are called ‘lai'hah’ and include Ministerial Resolutions, the council of ministers resolution, royal orders, and Ministerial Circulars.[124]Minister of Environment Water and Agriculture of KSA issued ministerial decrees to protect the environment that include Saudi Organic Agriculture Law & by-Law, National Aquaculture Policies and Practices, National Biosecurity Manual, and Saudi Code for Responsible Aquaculture Practices.[125]

Most of the ministries in KSA are managed by the members of the Royal family, supervised by the King. Minister of Environment Water and Agriculture issues ministerial decree related to the preservation of the environment. 

1. Basel Convention on the Control of Trans-boundary Movement of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal

In this section, we will discuss the Basal convention, parties, and main objectives of the convention. We will also discuss what is known as Toxic Colonialism, which leads to this convention.

Basel Convention is a United Nations treaty signed on 22nd March 1989 in Basel, Switzerland, by 187 parties[126]including Saudi Arabia and 53 signatories.[127] It was designed to prevent the transfer of hazardous waste from developed to developing countries. The convention also defined hazardous wastes and stressed on minimizing toxic wastes as much as possible at the source of generation to assist developing countries in the management of waste.

History

During the 1970s, strict environment laws raised the cost of hazardous waste treatment and disposal. Due to globalization, the movement of ships in the international waters increased. The developing world was also desperate for foreign currency, which leads the developed world to dispose of toxic waste to the developing world, a practice known as 'Toxic Colonialism'.

Around 4% of hazardous wastes that come from countries are shipped across international borders. These wastes include, among others, chemical waste, radioactive waste, municipal solid waste, asbestos, incinerator ash, and old tires.[128]

The increasing cost of hazardous waste disposal in the developed world and the need for foreign currency in the developed world lead to Toxic Colonialism. This led to the Basel Convention to reduce the movement of toxic waste from developed to developing countries.

1. Analyzing the Role of Legal Authorities in KSA in Solid Waste Disposal

The inefficiency of the bureaucratic system to resolve developmental issues is very obvious for some time as the municipalities even fail to provide simple services such as waste management, let alone the ability to implement government's grand developmental and administrative plans for Vision 2030. The infrastructure problem in cities of KSA remains unresolved, as reflected in the failure of complex organizational structures at local levels and significant overlap of legal authorities of various bodies of the government. These bodies at times are dysfunctional and ineffective, partly because they do not conform to the Kingdom's social and demographic changes as they haven't been reformed since the 1980s. 

In 1992, the Law of the Provinces was formalized, with the aim to improve administrative structure and development in Saudi Arabia[129]. Exploiting the authority laid down by the law, the crown started to appoint ‘Emirs’ (governors) from the members of the royal family to consolidate the federal power over the management of the provinces. The appointed emirs, belonging to foreign regions of the country, weren't equipped with the right knowledge to understand the local issues of the area, with a lack of interest in solving them, failed to coordinate with local tribal networks for the implementation of developmental projects. There is also a lack of accountability by the crown of these emirs.[130]

The regional government structure in KSA is managed by the Ministry of Interior. KSA is divided into thirteen emaras (regions), assisted by the regional council, and administered by an appointed Emir, which reports to the Ministry of Interior. The region's governorates are managed by the governors that report to the Emir.[131]

MOMRA runs parallel, a duplicate structure at the municipal level. Each province's capital has an amanah (secretariat), which is a bureaucratic body that manages the other cities and towns of the province. MOMRA also supervises hundreds of municipalities, responsible for many municipal functions like solid waste management. The budget of secretariat and municipalities is approved by Municipal Councils, which have no say in how the services will be provided and the use of public land. This authority is given to concerned ministries, secretariat, development authorities appointed by Council of Ministers, even to ARAMCO, Saudi State-owned company.

At the most level, various government institutions are involved in delivering services, including the Council of Economic and Developmental Affairs (CEDA), various project management offices mandated by Vision 2030, crown, and the diwan. All these bodies have a significant area of overlap in terms of their responsibilities, often bypassing and competing with each other.

With such a tangled national and local government structure, which is itself regulated by laws issued by various ministries, these bodies compete for power, resources, and representation, as well as there is lack of clarity over their legal authority and hierarchy. As a result, local bureaucrats lack the funding to work on effective waste management. In a rare event, Saudi Council criticized MOMRA for failure to carry developmental projects.[132] There has been shifting of blame for the failure between Emir, municipality, ARAMCO and contractors in response to recent flooding in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia’s largest city.[133] In another example, the government slashed the budget allocated for regional projects, shifting the resources to General Entertainment Authority. Local authorities that are at direct contact with population needs and demands are often given very limited funding, with their resources allocated for cultural festivals.[134]

Although Vision 2030 directs municipal and local bodies to carry out planning and implementation of various developmental projects it lacks any clear policy on reforming bureaucratic structures to decentralize authority and power to local bodies[135]. Due to this labyrinth of authority structures, the licensing procedures for various stages in waste management are complicated because of multiple license issuing authorities.

Hazardous waste landfills require specialized treatment before they are disposed of. There is little monitoring on the waste composition dumped at the collection and transfer stations, and landfills. Hazardous waste is often dumped at Municipal landfills designed specifically designed for municipal solid waste[136], which leads to the release of toxic materials in the soil and pollute groundwater. Illegal dumping is common around the Kingdom, with several uncontrolled waste dumps in use. There is a low percentage of landfill diversion due to a lack of incentives to the private sector for the recycling of wastes. 

The cost of disposal outside industrial cities is high due to large transport distances, as the cost of transportation of waste is included in the landfill cost. There is a lack of geographical coverage of treatment facilities and a lack of government control over the facilities falling outside the industrial cities.

Staff involved in waste management services is inadequate, are poorly trained, and lack the necessary qualifications to manage the process. There is a lack of awareness among citizens and manufacturers for waste handling, which leads to improper sorting and illegal dumping. There is no central database to track the quality and quantity of industrial waste produced and the lack of prosecutions of those involved in violation due to corruption.

1. Legal Authorities in Charge of Solid Waste Disposal
2. Municipal Councils in KSA and their Role in Solid Waste Management

History

Municipal Councils in KSA are local administration bodies which include Amara Governate and rest of local units, regulated by their respective central ministries. Established by legislative constitution, they form the first tier of the government and concerned authority figures that deal with local issues. Law of Municipality of Makkah and other Municipalities, 1954, called for the formation of municipal councils in a bid to encourage the participation of the local community in government, with elected members from the general public. In 1977, the Law of Municipalities and Villages was issued that reiterated the need for establishing Municipal Councils. It also defined their organizational structure, composition, and responsibilities related to certain municipal functions, empowering them to implement specific duties on the community level.

Organizational Structure

Municipal Councils are semi-autonomous bodies, with an equal number of elected and appointed members. Minister of Municipal and Rural Affairs (MOMRA) appoints the mayor, and a chairman and its deputy are elected by the majority of council members for a period of two years. Decisions of the councils are made by vote majority while the final authority to approve those decisions fall on MOMRA.

Municipal Functions and Responsibilities

The responsibilities of Municipal Councils are defined by the Law of Municipalities and Villages. The Councils are responsible for organizing the area according to the endorsed plan and issuing permits for the construction of the infrastructure and the buildings, ensuring the general management, including waste management done effectively. Municipal functions also include protecting public health by clearing all swamps and disposal of wastewater effectively. They also preserve cleanliness and city appearance by effective waste disposal methods. The location of slaughterhouses is important as during the festival of Eid ul Adha, large quantities of animal waste, contribute to significant organic waste. Municipal Council also builds and organizes the slaughterhouses to prevent mismanagement in handling animal waste. Implementing vision 2030 through waste management programs for sorting waste, collection, and disposal to municipal landfills is also the responsibility of Municipal Councils. On a local level, waste management, from collection, transport, and placement at landfills, is primarily the responsibility of regional Municipal Councils regulated by Local Affairs and Ministry of Municipalities.  These municipalities operate landfills through private contractors.

2. Legal Authorities and Duties of the Saudi Government on Waste Management on Federal Level

General Authority for Meteorology and Environmental Protection  Regulates environmental protection laws and is the top authority body supervising all the environmental projects. It also monitors the progress of Municipal Councils and formulates environmental principles serving as a guideline for all public and private agencies in KSA. On these guidelines, the implementation of laws and their progress is assessed. 

The Saudi Authority for Industrial Cities and Technology Zones  , also known as MODON is a government body created by KSA in 2001, which is responsible for the regulation of Technology Zones and Industrial Estates. It also encourages the private sector to get involved in the development of Industrial Estates. MODON has established up to 35 industrial cities under its program, including MODON Oases (industrial cities for women workers) and oversees their organization. Various new industrial cities are under development in various parts of the Kingdom. MODON supervises the operational and underdevelopment cities. It ensures that the environmental laws set by GAMEP are implemented through inspection of industries for keeping up with environmental standards and subjecting penalties for violation of these standards. MODON also provides non-hazardous waste collection services for factories and their disposal in municipal landfills, making coordination and monitoring much more accessible.

The Royal Commission for Jubail and Yanbu, or simply known as RCJY, is an autonomous administrative and financially independent organization, governed by the Board of Directors, reporting directly to the Council of Ministers. The Chairman's Office in Riyadh makes policies and supervises the implementation of policies through the Directorates General in Yanbu and Jubail. RCJY aims to diversify the economy and decrease the dependence of KSA on the oil exports for GDP, through the development of industrial cities of Jubail and Yanbu. It supervises the operations in industrial cities, ensuring they are environmentally friendly and also regulates the industrial waste sector independently through r[1]Environmental Standards on Material Recovery and Recycling of Waste. Presidency of Meteorology and Environment, 2012. https://www.pme.gov.sa/en/En_EnvStand1.pdf.

[1], Biological Treatment and Standard of 2012, (KSA: Presidency of Meteorology and Environment, 2012), https://www.pme.gov.sa/en/En_EnvStand11.pdf.

[1], Standard on Waste Transportation, (KSA: Presidency of Meteorology and Environment, 2012), https://www.pme.gov.sa/en/En_EnvStand15.pdf.

[1], Waste Water Discharge Standard of 2012, (KSA: Presidency of Meteorology and Environment, 2012), https://www.pme.gov.sa/en/En_EnvStand17.pdf.

[1]The Qur'an 6:165

[1]The Qur'an 7:31

[1]Ibn Majah , Book of Purity, Sunan Ibn Majah, Sahih Musnad Ahmed (851)

[1]The Qur'an 28:77

[1]The Qur'an 2:60

[1]The Qur'an 6:141

[1]Khatib Al-Tabrizi, Al-Bukhari, Al-Muslim, Mishkat al-Masabih (n.d)

[1]Muhammad Al-Bukhari, p. 138, Al-Adab al-Mufrad (Beirut: Daru'l-Ma'rife, n.d)

[1]Ahmad B. Hanbal, p. 415, Volume 5, Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal (n.d)

[1]Ahmad B. Hanbal, p. 374, Volume 6, Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal (n.d)

[1]Abu Zakariya Yaḥya Ibn-Šaraf an- Nawawī and F. A. Matraji, Narrated by Abu Dharr Al-Ghafari, Riyadh Us-saliheen (1998)

[1]James R. Silkenat, Jeffrey M. Aresty, and Jacqueline Klosek, The ABA Guide to International Business Negotiations: A Comparison of Cross-cultural Issues and Successful Approaches (Chicago, Illinois: American Bar Association, 2009)

[1]Otto and Jan Michiel, "Sharia Incorporated: A Comparative Overview of the Legal Systems of Twelve Muslim Countries in Past and Present," 2010

[1], General Environmental Regulations and Rules for Implementation, (Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Presidency of Meteorology and Environment, 2001)

[1]Doing Business in Saudi Arabia, (Latham & Watkins LLP, 2012), https://www.lw.com/upload/pubContent/_pdf/pub3507_1.pdf.

[1]"GAMEP Rules And Regulations," last modified May 8, 2019, https://mewa.gov.sa/en/InformationCenter/DocsCenter/RulesLibrary/Pages/default.aspx.

[1]"Parties to the Basel Convention," Basel Convention, accessed February 29, 2020, https://www.basel.int/Countries/StatusofRatifications/PartiesSignatories/tabid/4499/Default.aspx.

[1]"Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal," United Nations Treaty Collection, accessed February 29, 2020, https://treaties.un.org/pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XXVII-3&chapter=27&lang=en.

[1], "The transboundary shipments of hazardous wastes," International Trade in Hazardous Wastes, 1998, xx, doi:10.4324/9780203476901.ch4.

[1]“The Royal Embassy of Saudi Arabia,” Law of the Provinces, accessed March 8, 2020, https://www.saudiembassy.net/law-provinces)

[1]Hadi Fathallah, “Failure of Regional Governance in Saudi Arabia,” Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, July 26, 2018, https://carnegieendowment.org/sada/76928)

[1]“The Royal Embassy of Saudi Arabia,” Provincial System | The Embassy of The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, accessed March 8, 2020, https://www.saudiembassy.net/provincial-system-0)

[1]“أعضاء-في-الشورى-وزارة-الشؤون-البلدية-هدر-على-الدولة,” Al Hayat, n.d., http://www.alhayat.com/article/917821/)

[1]Author: Arab News, “'Municipality Responsible for Flood',” Arab News, December 6, 2009, https://www.arabnews.com/node/330734)

[1]Agence France-Press, “Saudi Arabia to Spend Billions on Expanding Entertainment Sector,” The Guardian (Guardian News and Media, February 23, 2018), https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/feb/23/saudi-arabia-to-spend-billions-on-expanding-entertainment-sector)

[1]“GOVERNANCE MODEL FOR ACHIEVING SAUDI ARABIA'S VISION 2030,” Governance | Saudi Vision 2030, accessed March 8, 2020, https://vision2030.gov.sa/en/governance)

[1]“ ArRiyadh’s Comprehensive Waste Management Strategy," ArRiyadh’s Comprehensive Waste Management Strategy (2016))

egulations and standards. RCJY also stimulates the private sector to invest in the recycling of industrial waste and disposing of non-recyclable waste in RCJY landfills.

Conclusion

Municipal Solid Waste in KSA mostly consists of organic waste like food and plastic waste, mainly consisting of disposable items, which particularly increases during the hajj days. Solid waste is collected at onsite storage containers, with improper sorting due to lack of public and industrial awareness, from where the waste is transported to transfer stations, which after compaction, is loaded in trailers to be carried at disposal landfill sites. The process is regulated by municipalities operating under Local Affairs and Ministry of Municipalities, whereas central bodies concerned with legislation include GAMEP, MODON, and RCJY formulate laws and set guideline standards for environmental protection. Various waste disposal methods are employed depending on the nature of the waste. Disposal at non-engineered landfill sites, owned by the government and operated by private contractors, is the common disposal method. Non-hazardous solid waste is handled specifically at municipal landfills, which are running out of their storage capacities. Decomposition at landfills produces leachates that pollute the soil, which percolates through the porous ground of KSA to pollute underwater resources. Greenhouse emissions at landfill sites pollute the air. Composting converts solid organic waste into useful products for agriculture. However, the compost is of low quality, and the agricultural area is quite less, making the approach ineffective. Incineration of solid waste significantly reduces its volume, but it also produces the air by releasing greenhouse gases, and the bottom ash contains unburned organic matter. Laws and regulations on non-hazardous waste in KSA exist on many levels. Various environmental laws like Environmental Standards on Material Recovery and Recycling of Waste, Biological Treatment Standard, Standard on Waste Transportation and Waste Water Discharge Standard ensure the compliance of industries to new waste treatment and disposal practices, issuing guidance standards for best practices, classification, and labeling of the waste, preventing accidents and facilitating the trans-border movement of wastes and regulating discharges to maintain water quality. However, these laws are not effectively implemented; illegal disposal and mixing of hazardous with non-hazardous waste are common problems. Environmental protection is greatly stressed in Islam by a number of verses of Quran, sayings of Prophet Muhammad, and their companions by conservation of resources by minimizing waste and discouraging consumer attitude, the prohibition of overexploitation of resources, and spreading corruption on the land. Islam also stresses on the forestry and protection of biodiversity, and maintaining the cleanliness of surroundings and preventing contamination of water resources. The punishments for violating the environment are context-dependent, depending on the severity of the problem. Royal and Ministerial Decrees in KSA related to environment ensure making environmental planning integral part of development process, defining waste, and hazardous and non-hazardous waste, formulating standards for waste generators, transporters and waste management facilities, conduct environmental studies, conduct training programs. Basel Convention is an international treaty signed by 187 parties with the goal to stop the transport of hazardous waste to the developingworld.There is a significant area of overlap between various government bodies in Saudi Arabia, competing for representation and power. Local bureaucratic structures have little budget for the implementation of waste management projects. Illegal dumping is widespread, and there is a lack of qualified personnel for waste management. There is a need for clarity in government structure and strict action against violation of waste management standards.

CHAPTER 3

The waste managament for the non hazardous waste in GCC countries

Chapter 2 

1. Waste generation in GCC countries

Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) is a regional cooperation between six countries; Bahrain, UAE, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Oman and Qatar. GCC member states are among the top 10 per capita waste generators in the world.[137] These countries share similar geography, history, culture and modernization practices, with common factors contributing to increasing solid waste generation. These factors include population and economic growth, and rapid urbanization.  The main contributor of waste in GCC countries is construction and demolition waste, which accounts for half of the total waste, followed by municipal solid waste, comprising of one quarter of the total[138]. Other wastes are industrial waste (18%) and hazardous waste. These proportions vary slightly, for example in UAE, construction and demolition waste and Municipal Solid Waste comprises of two thirds and one thirds of the total respectively.

Increase in solid waste generation is becoming major concern for all members of GCC. According to a study, published by Frost and Sullivan in 2017, the total amount of solid waste generated in GCC amounts to 95-100 million metric tons.[139] All of these member states exceed the global average of 1.2 kilogram/person/day. UAE accounts for the highest share in waste generation per person per day at 2.1 kg. Qatar, Saudi Arabia and Bahrain have an average of 1.7kg/person/day, followed by Kuwait and Oman at 1.7 and 1.2 kg/person/day respectively. Rise in solid waste generation is becoming a major concern for these countries. Waste generated is estimated to increase from 94 million metric tons per annum to 120 millionmetric tons per annum by 2020[140], with KSA and UAE contributing major share of waste. Municipalities of GCC lack the infrastructure and capacity to handle such an amount of waste, making current landfilling strategies ineffective in the longer run.

Comparative Analysis of Municipal Solid Waste Composition in GCC Countries

In this section we will examine the amount of waste generated in GCC countries, along with their composition of different types of waste. Various waste disposal method practices and their effectiveness will be analyzed. We will also discuss common environmental issues faced by these countries and role of Supreme Council in tackling these issues.

Oman

According to Muscat Municipality Waste Generation Report, 257,004 tons of municipal solid waste was produced in 2001, while in 2009, the waste increased more than four times in Muscat in 2009.[141]

Table 1 lists major component of solid waste, with total waste comprising of 71.20% and 65.80% organic waste in winter and summer respectively. Remaining waste consists of inorganic components. Organic waste primarily comprises of vegetable waste, decayed vegetables and leaves. Weight and Volume of food waste increases by 10% in winter. Large quantities of food waste are generated from households and commercial entities like hotels and restaurants.

Table 1: Composition of Solid Waste in Oman in the Winter[142]

Paper is the second major component of solid waste, mainly comprising of packages made of cardboard and prints (books, magazines and newspapers). Due to absence of recycling industry for paper in Oman, most of the waste ends at landfill sites, meanwhile a large quantity of paper products are imported into the country.

Plastic waste, mainly comprises of beverages and soft drink bottles, is the third largest contributor of waste. Although plastic weight by percentage is low, it has comparatively high percentage volume. Dairy products such as milk and milk products come in plastic containers, which occupy greater space in landfills due to their rigidity against compaction.

Glass makes major component of inorganic waste. Most of the glass waste comes from beverages and juice bottles.[143]

Kuwait

The amount of solid waste generated by Kuwait is estimated upto 4 million metric tons. 25% of this waste comprises of household solid waste from residential areas. Construction waste comprises of majority of the waste in Kuwait due rapid economic and urban development that makes the construction of buildings necessary. Amount of construction waste generated throughout from 2002 to 2011 has been shown in the Table 2.  In the Municipal solid waste, organic waste comprises of up to 50% of the total, followed by paper (21%) and plastic (13%) respectively, as shown in the figure 1.

Table 2: Domestic and Construction Waste Quantity in Kuwait from 2002 to 2011[144]

Figure 1: Composition of Municipal Waste in Kuwait[145]

Qatar

According to Qatar Municipal Solid Waste Organization, Qatar produces 1 million metric tons of solid waste, approximating to 3,000 tons of waste per day. Industrial waste amounts to 2,500 tons per day while the construction and demolition waste approximates to 20,000 tons/day, which is increasing due to increase in urbanization.[146] 4,600 tons of waste gets recycled.[147] However, the waste generation varies from month to month. It becomes lower in summer months, when majority of expatriate population travels to spend holdays in their home countries.

In the municipal solid waste, 57% of the waste is organic, 11% paper, 14% plastic, glass 4% and metals 5%. (Qatar municipality)

Bahrain

Bahrain generates 1.2 million metric tons of solid waste per year, while the waste produced per day exceeds 4,500 tons. Organic waste comprises of 60% of the waste, which is mainly food waste, paper makes 13%, plastics 7% and glass 4%.[148] Due to rapid urbanization, amount of waste generated has increased in the past decades as demonstrated by Figure 2. Composition of waste also varies by different household income groups as shown in the Table 3.

Figure 2:Gross Domestic Product vs. MSW generation in Kingdom of Bahrain (1998-2010).[149]

Table 3: Domestic waste composition in Bahrain[150]

UAE

UAE generates 9.5 million metric tons of solid waste per year. Waste generation rates from 2012 to 2017 have been shown in the Table 4, which demonstrates decreasing construction and demolition waste, and municipal waste in 2017. According  to Figure (), construction and demolition waste makes up to 42%, industrial and commercial waste 33%, Municipal waste 15% and Agricultural waste 10% of the total.

Table 4:Non-hazardous solid waste generation by source activity[151]

Figure 3:Percentage distribution of Non-hazardous solid waste by source activity -2017 (Source: Statistic Centre - Abu Dhabi)[152]

Increasing rates of generation of waste presents a major concern for GCC countries. All these countries have above average rates of waste per person per day as compared to the rest of the world. Due to rapid urbanization and investment, construction and demolition waste contributes to the major share. Organic waste comprises of more than half of the municipal waste, followed by papers and plastics. The composition of waste varies in different income groups, with high income groups generating more waste. The amount of waste produced increases in winter and in the month of Ramadan, and decreases in summer as all GCC counties have large expatriate populations, which travel to their home countries to spend the vacations. In GCC, GDP has direct correlation with the amount of waste produced. The amount becomes significantly lower in the years of economic crises.

1. Disposal of non hazardous waste by GCC countries

In this section, various disposal methods of waste in individual GCC countries will be discussed, starting from collection of solid waste, transport, treatment via composting and incineration and final disposal at landfill sites. A comparative analysis will be made at each stage, discussing similarities and differences, highlighting major initiatives.

Oman

Oman lacks proper waste collection and disposal facilities. Disposal of solid waste in Oman is carried predominantly through landfill disposal. Oman Municipality operates 350 landfills.[153]Currently, there are five operating landfills in Muscat that include Al-SeebQuriyat, Al-Amerat, Mutrah and Bousher.[154]The existing landfills are open landfills without proper engineering as they were chosen out of the need. Waste is also sent to unauthorized sites for disposal, with several dumpsites closer to residential areas or ground aquifers. These landfills are operating as open dumps without consideration to the environment. The other potential problems include limited landfill capacity, gas and leachate production, and percolation of the leachate contaminating ground water sources.[155]

In Oman, Al Ameerat landfill is the first engineered sanitary landfill, which is spread around 9.6 hectares, with the total capacity of 10 million metric of solid waste. It has properly designed shafts which are interconnected to drain the leachate through leachate pump.[156]

However, Omani’s government has launched robust initiatives build MSW infrastructure that includes closing all of the dumpsites in Sultanate of Oman and replace them with 10-11 engineered landfills. Two landfills in particular, Al Multaqa and Al Barka landfills, are constructed with model engineering standards. To improve the collection of waste, 18-25 transfer stations are also being built as also shown in the Figure 4.

To increase landfill diversion rate, other disposal methods like composting, incarnation and recycling are being introduced. Strategic objective is to divert 60% of the waste from landfills in 2020 and up to 80% in 2030, which is being accomplished by 3 major ways:

1. Waste to Energy to Water

40% of the total MSW can be utilized in incinerators. The energy produced from burning the waste materials can be used to power Water Desalinization plants to produce 121 cubic metric of waster annually.

2. Waste to Fuel (RDF)

Rich organic compost is produced from organic waste, which makes more than half of the municipal waste. The waste with high chlorific value is utilized to produce refused derived fuel which can power various industries, cement industry in particular.

3. Production of Steam to promote Oil Extraction

The energy produced from incineration of waste can be used to produce steam for the purpose of oil extraction..

Figure 4: MSW Infrastructure in Sultanate of Oman[157]

Kuwait

The current waste collection practice includes collecting waste from all regions of the Kuwait and delivering them to landfills, handled by the private firms in contract with the city government (municipality).[158] Collection of the solid waste covers various aspects like location of industrial city, transfer stations and transportation method utilized. Roads in Kuwait are often congested, which makes the transportation of the waste difficult. Poor service is performed by municipality and contractors, as the materials aren’t segregated and transported directly to the landfills.

Transfer stations serve as intermediate points between collection sites and transportation of waste to the disposal sites.[159] Industrial cities use nearby landfills as transfer stations. Collected waste is then discharged into large trucks to be transported to landfills. Transfer stations reduce the cost by decreasing transportation distances, reducing traffic volume, enhancing segregation of materials and lowering the maintenance costs of vehicles.[160]

The most common disposal in Kuwait is dumping solid waste in landfills. Kuwait has 15 landfills in total, while 3 remain currently active that include Mina Abdullah, Al Jahra and South 7^th Ring Road as shown in the table. Majority of the waste is dumped in the South 7^th Ring Road landfill, which has largest area, serves 4 governorates and 70 main districts of the country. Some portion of the waste also goes for recycling and treatment, depending on the waste composition. However there are few recycling plants in Kuwait.

Table 5: Details of the current open MSW landfills in Kuwait[161]

All the solid waste is indiscriminately dumped to landfills, without any environmental precautions. Landfills cover 45.5 km² area of Kuwait and are approximated to increase by 60km² by 2025. Given the shortage of land in Kuwait, new land for landfills will be hard to find as the active landfills are running out of capacity, along with increasing demand for population land. 

Currently, there are 16 landfills in Kuwait and only 3 are operational. None of the active landfills qualify the status of sanitary landfill.[162] Neither of them are effectively designed, nor located.[163] Dumping of waste is causing problems, particularly inAlQurain and Sabhan landfills. There is occurrence of flares in the adjoining areas due to ignition of methane gas as well as strong odour. Leachates from Sabhan landfills lead to closure of nearby military installations. The area went unguarded which lead to illegal dumping of construction and demolition waste, wood and tires.

Qatar

In Qatar, construction waste contributes to major share of waste. Municipal solid waste is collected in plastic bags in Qatari households, and these bags contain mixed garbage, as there is no segregation of various waste components. This makes separation difficult at the later stages, which is achieved after their disposal at the landfill. Even at that stage, there is only separation of valuable components like plastics, glass, metal and paper, by either private scavenger as well as by recycling centers. The plastic bags from households are thrown in collection containers, located near the houses.

Qatar General Cleaning Project (QGCP)[164] leads municipalities, which are responsible for municipal waste collection, either through their own infrastructure or through partnerships with private sector. Around 700 trucks are used to collect waste from 54,000 collection sites, located at the distance of 6-7 km from the city center. The trucks dump the waste at transfer stations, which are open dumps, where the waste is stored for few days. Different trailers of various sizes transfer this waste to landfills. There is no separation of waste prior to dumping.

The methods used for waste disposal in Qatar are landfill and composting. Qatar has 3 active landfills; RawdaRashed for dumping construction and demolition waste, Umm Al-Afai for municipal waste and Al-Krana for dumping sewage waste.[165]Umm Al- Afai landfill was constructed 30 years ago. It covers area of Doha and handles 200 tons of waste daily. It is designed keeping in mind engineering standards and constructed on impermeable soil, to reduce the risk of leachate contamination. Collection pipes of height 12m efficiently release green house gases. There is lack of environmental regulations for these landfills to provide effective monitoring.

Most of the municipal solid waste in Qatar is organic, with the production of 300 ton/day. Many composting plants have been built in Doha, converting organic waste into 170 tons of compost per day, used as soil conditioner and fertilizer. Qatar has established The Anaerobic & Aerobic Digestion plant of the Domestic Solid Waste Management Centre, at Mesaieed, which is the largest composting plant in the world and first state of the art composting plant in middle-east. It produced 1000 tons of Grade A compost until date.[166]

Qatari Government has established Domestic Solid Waste Management Centre (DSWMC)[167] to implement various initiatives related separation at collection sites, recycling, conversion of waste into energy, composting, incarnated ash treatment and engineered solid waste landfill. The estimated cost of these projects amount to 3.9 billion QR. Various transfer stations will also been established, with the capacity of 4,450 tons/day.[168] The current capacity is 1,557 tons, less than waste generated, while only 1.3% of the total waste is recycled.[169]

Bahrain

Municipal Solid Waste contributes to major portion of solid waste in Bahrain. Waste collection services in Bahrain are provided by two private contractors; the Gulf City Cleaning Company[170] and Sphinx Services[171], collecting waste from Manama and Muharraq, and North, South and Middle Area governorates. Remaining waste is collected by other private companies, which aren’t restricted to any particular area. The two private contractors provide waste container per 12 households. In each governorate, the companies deploy 200 vehicles and 500 manual workers, involved in waste collection. Litter bins are also placed in specific areas such as bus stops and schools. All the citizens have access to reliable street sweeping service.[172]

Asker landfill is the only active landfill in Bahrain[173], situated 25 km from the capital city Manama. The ground has an impermeable layer of rock. However there is no leachate drainage layer or collection pipes for controlled emission of green house gases. Leachate production is quite low due to less rainfall, low ground permeability and hot climate. There are no transfer stations and the waste is directly dumped to landfills, without any pre-treatment. The landfill is running out of its capacity due to increasing input of waste.

Municipality of Bahrain is shifting towards landfill diversion alternatives. Ministry of Municipalities and Agriculture Affairs signed contract with an international company to construct waste to energy unit in the country, with capacity to process 390,000 tons of waste per year and produce electricity.

GCCC and Sphinx Services also provide 5 public recycling points for the collection of plastic waste, paper and metals in each area. These areas perform ineffectively due to lack of public awareness. Universe Projects International also provides public containers. The collected materials are manually separated and exported to other Gulf countries. Various NGOs like the Mother and Child Welfare Society collect recyclables and sell them to other recycling companies. Informal sector includes waste pickers that collect recyclables from households and waste containers and sell them to recycling companies. Crown Industries provides recycling plants, involved in recycling metals like iron, plastic and paper.

Organic Products (BOP) is the only private company providing composting service to Bahrain. It processes livestock waste like horse and sheep manure, green waste, to produce high quality compost.

The complete process of waste management is summarized through a flow diagram in the Figure 5.

Figure 5: Semi-quantitative Shankey-type waste/secondary material flow diagram showing all the key non-hazardous waste system components and flows in Bahrain. Flows are in tonnes of materials per day (Mg day−1). Size of arrows is proportional to the relative magnitude of flows.[174]

UAE

UAE has a robust waste management system. Waste management responsibilities are split among 3 institutions by the Environment Agency Abu Dhabi. Tadweer handles municipal, medical, agricultural and, construction and demolition waste. FANR is processes radioactive waste while ADNOC handles oil and gas waste.[175]

Centre for Waste Management (CWM) established by the government of UAE, leads coordinated waste management initiatives in the entire region. Private sector plays a major role in solid waste management, through short term and long term contracts with the government, providing services and construction of waste management infrastructure. CWM in coordination with private sector is responsible for the collection, transportation and disposal of municipal solid waste in UAE. These private companies are called Environmental Service Providers (ESPs). Local municipality collects 11% of the waste.[176]

The waste from Greater Abu Dhabi is transported to Al Mafraq transfer station and finally to Al Dhafra landfill, with the capacity of 2,000 tons/day. From the western region, municipal solid waste is disposed in 7 official landfills that include Madinat Zayed, Al Sila/Baya, Gogeven, Al Ruwais, Al Mirfa, Yathi andKhannur landfills as shown in Figure 6. These landfills are designed based on best environmental principles to prevent leachate percolation to the ground.

Figure 6: Waste Management Facilities in Abu Dhabi[177]

Western region also accommodates 2 composting plants for handling organic waste, in Liwa and Ghayathi, and are equipped with mobile composting equipment. UAE has also established 2 incineration plants and 4 recycling plants as show in table. Percentage distribution of waste management plants have been shown in the Table 6.

Table 6:  Waste management plants in UAE Dhabi – 2017[178]

Due to rapid urbanization and development of UAE, construction waste represents major share of solid waste. The factors contributing to the construction and demolition waste include lack of companies supporting leadership[179], poor design, lack of government legislations, lack of recycling plants and lack of contractual incentives. Lack of awareness is the major cause behind construction and demolition waste generation.[180]

All of the countries of GCC have similar methods of waste disposal, with their specific challenges. UAE and Bahrain have most efficient waste disposal systems than rest of GCC. This is achieved through various contracts with the private sector. Besides, these countries have also established incineration and recycling plants. Construction waste is the major component of solid waste in all GCC countries due to rapid urbanization and number of ongoing investment projects, which is related to their increasing GDP. UAE has launched various initiatives to minimize construction waste. Major cause of CDW is lack of awareness among company managers regarding waste management. None of these countries employ separation of wastes before dumping at landfills, which make the separation difficult. The available land to meet future landfill demands is severely limited in countries like Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar and UAE. These GCC members are looking for alternate methods for landfill diversion. Landfills in UAE and Oman are designed on state of the art standards to prevent leachate percolation and emission of green house gases.  Qatar has established world’s largest composting plant, producing Grade A compost. Bahrain carries recycling efficiently through various private collection companies, recycling plants and involvement of informal sector.

1. Common Environmental Issues faced by GCC Countries in relation to Waste Management

In this section, environmental issues related to various disposal practices like landfilling, incineration and composting will be discussed related to emission of green house gases, biodiversity loss, contamination of groundwater and soil. Table summarizes environmental impact of various waste disposal methods.

Emission of Green House Gases and Climate Change

Greenhouse effect[181] is contributing to warming of our planet through trapping heat due to presence of particular gases in the atmosphere, called Greenhouse Gases (GHGs).[182] The most potent of these gases are methane, carbon dioxide and nitric oxide. Each of the gas has Global Warming Potential (GWP) value, which indicates their potent value relative to carbon dioxide. For example GWP value of methane is 28[183], which means 1 ton of methane has warming potential of 28 tons of carbon dioxide.

Municipal Solid Waste, at different stages of management of collection, transportation and disposal as shown in the Table 7, contributes to a significant share of Greenhouse Gases. According to World Bank Report in 2017[184], solid waste contributed to 5% of the emissions worldwide. In GCC countries, more than half of the municipal solid waste dumped at the landfills contains biodegradable, organic matter. Upon decomposition methane is produced[185], which traps almost 20 times more heat than CO². Due to foul smelling gases, there is also increase in respiratory issues.  Emission of greenhouse gases from incinerators, as shown in the Table 7, is also a major contributor to climate change.

Biodiversity Loss and Ecological Imbalance

Landfills cover a wide area, affecting the local biodiversity. 30 to 300 species per hectare are lost due to presence of landfill site. Some birds and mammal, like crows and rats, feed on the different components of waste, leading to their dominance and disturbing natural ecosystem, leading to extinction of other mammals and birds. Similarly, due to presence of certain nutrients in the waste, certain plant species replace the existing ones, due to competition of resources.[186]

Contamination of Ground Water Resources

Majority of the landfills in GCC countries are open dumps and lack engineered designs to cope up the problem of leachate percolation in the surrounding soul. Many organic and irorganic waste products dissolve in the rain water, collecting at the base of the landfill.[187] Leachate contains toxic organic compounds, ammonia, heavy metals and pathogens, which then percolates, contaminating water aquifers[188] through percolation through permeable ground. These pathogens are aerobic bacteria, which can deplete the water oxygen levels, creating high oxygen demand, impacting quality of the water.  In GCC countries, ground water resources are already scarce and are being exploited at a rapid pace due to rapid urbanization. Contamination of these sources poses a significant thread.

Soil Contamination

Lechates produced from landfills contain toxic products that destroy the quality of the surrounding soil.[189]This leads to desertification and loss of land, which is already a concern in GCC countries due to increased demand of land for rapid urbanization. The extent of the impact depends upon the composition of leachate such as availability of oxygen, landfill design and age.[190]The landfills are also reaching their capacity and render the land completely useless as the land cannot be used for construction purposes due to continuously decaying waste compounds. Ash produced from incineration contains toxic heavy metals, which also contaminate the soul.[191]

Table 7: A summary of the direct environmental impacts of various waste technologies [192]

_b Abbreviations: GHG, greenhouse gas; PAH, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon; PCB, polychlorinated biphenyl; VOC, volatile organic compound.

Current disposal practices from collection to disposal pose a significant threat to environment. Landfills and incineration are responsible for emission of green house gases like methane, with large Global Warming Potential. Dumping of waste also leads to loss of ecology, as certain species, feeding on the waste become dominant and lead to extinction of other species. The decomposing organic matter and ash from incinerators produce leachate, rich with heavy metals. As the landfills aren’t designed with good engineering standards, leachate percolates to the ground contaminating soil and ground water. It also makes surrounding area inhabitable.

Conclusion

GCC countries are among the top 10 per capita waste generators of the world. All of these countries exceed the global average waste generation rate of 1.7 kg/per person/per day. Due to rapid urbanization and construction projects, majority of the waste generated is construction and demolition waste. Among the municipal solid waste, more than half of the waste is organic matter, primarily comprising of food residues, followed by paper, metals and glass. Current waste disposal practices involve collection of waste from households, transport of the waste by trucks at the transfer stations and final disposal at landfills. Depending on the composition of the waste, it is also processed at composting plants, producing compost as well as burnt at incinerators. There is no sorting of waste during the point of collection due to low awareness among public regarding waste disposal. Most of the landfills in GCC countries are open dumps that are not engineered to prevent leakage of leachates. These sites are located near residential areas and running out of storage capacities. It poses a significant challenge due to shortage of land available for new landfills. Current disposal practices pose a significant thread to environment. Organic waste at landfills release greenhouse gasses, leading to global warming and leachates, contaminating soil and ground water reservoirs. They also lead to biodiversity loss.

There is a need to opt for landfill diversion methods to reduce disposal at waste sites. Many of the waste materials are recyclables. Boosting recycling sector, formal and informal, can reduce waste significantly. Among GCC countries, Bahrain has effective model for waste disposal. It relies heavily on private sector in partnership with local municipalities for waste disposal. Many private companies also provide recycling services. Qatar has established world’s largest composting plant, which produces high quality compost. In Oman, state of the art, engineered landfills have been built, along with investment in waste to energy solutions. To reduce construction and demolition waste, these countries need t focus on developing quality designs, supporting leadership, government legislations, recycling plants and contractual incentives for these industries.

 Waste management laws and regulations

Explain HOW or WHY resources conservation related to waste management

            Resource conservation is the supervision of utilization of natural resources to provide the maximum advantage to the current generation while preserving the capability to meet future generations' requirements. In this case, conservation can be demonstrated to include both the protection and rational utilization of resources. Waste management is demonstrated as the process of ensuring there is control of how people dispose of waste materials. Waste management can be termed as waste disposal, which entails the activities and actions needed to control waste materials from beginning to the final disposal act. The process, therefore, includes the collection, transportation, treatment, and disposal. This process goes together with monitoring as well as regulation of how the management process is being handled. From this understanding, the link between resource conservation and waste management can be seen. Using reducing waste materials, recovery, and resource conservation also reduces. The amount of landfill capacity required is reduced; this gives room to native administrations to close current landfills previously and change them into the useful communal arena.

            Waste management has a great history of how it has been contributing to the conservation efforts in society. Waste management for more than 27 years has joined hands with the Wildlife Habitat Council to promote sustainability, biodiversity, and conservation training at the company's sites.[1] Stretching from invasive species to pollinator gardens monitoring programs, these projects have promoted environmental stewardship from the ground. In 2011, waste management in 2011 achieved one of its sustainability goals, where it managed to certify 24,000 acres and 100 sites.[2] From this short history, we can attest that waste management has contributed a lot to the conservation of resources, which makes it a crucial effort in the current generation for a better tomorrow.

            However, there have been laws and regulations set for decades to ensure proper management of non-hazardous wastes at multiple levels. These laws count from the environmental laws, Royal Decrees, Ministerial Decrees, international treaties such as the Basel Convention, and Sharia laws. This paper's primary focus will be based on Sharia law and Ministerial Decrees, how and why they relates to waste management.

Take each point in the sharia law section and explain how or why it is related to waste management.

            Protecting the environment is an essential feature of Islam.[3] Based on the fact demonstrated in the Quran, Muslims have been made stewards on Earth; this makes them enjoin in Muslims' responsibility to play a proactive role in conserving the environment. Muslims are stimulated continuously to demonstrate their relationship with their environs and living beings and maintain ecological balance. From this perspective, Sharia law is positively related to waste management. Thus, this paper takes the notion of its relation to demonstrate how and why it is related. As demonstrated in the Sharia law, the points below give a clear understanding of the relationship between Sharia law and waste management.

Resource conservation

            According to the Islamic teachings, towards resource conversation of natural resources is mainly based on the prevention of ever exploitation. From what Quran states, people are the viceroys to look after the creation. Islamic convictions, customs, and qualities give a successful and complete answer to humanity's current natural difficulties[4] Muslims have a gorgeous convention featuring the significance of ecological insurance and the protection of average assets. As per Sharia law, the essential components of the environment and all the natural resources such as timberland have a place with every single living thing, not merely individuals.

The Holy Qur'an is a managing light to advance economic improvement in Islamic nations just as around the globe.[5] Allah orders individuals to abstain from making mischief and squandering assets as these demonstrations cause corruption of the Earth.[6] The benefit of regular abuse assets was given to humankind on a guardianship premise, which suggests utilizing someone else's property to guarantee that it won't be harmed or wrecked. 

            The Holy Quran warns the habits of wasting resources; this is demonstrated from the verse that demonstrates that as children of God, people are supposed to eat and drink but ensure not to waste as God Himself hates those who waste resources.[7] Using fewer resources that people can manage without wasting is the right path to having proper attention to reduced wastage of resources. When people properly use resources, there are high chances of reducing waste in the surrounding. If the community can follow Allah directives by reducing the number of wastes in the surrounding, the amount of time wasted in cleaning huge garbage of surplus resources can be exploited in building the wellness of the human habitats as well as for those living around us, hence, fulfilling Allah’s directives in resource conservation.

            Neighborhood governments have a unique chance to decrease management costs, air contamination, gas discharges, and vitality utilization through asset protection and healing.[8] They are commonly liable for dealing with the waste produced inside their regions and can execute methodologies to help bring down their networks' expenses. Strong waste administration utilizes vitality and creates gas emanations, air contaminations, and air toxics. The effects are considerably more prominent when items are seen from a lifecycle viewpoint: the extraction, creation, use, and removal of products and materials are answerable for an expected 35% of United States gas outflows.[9] This being the situation, nearby governments can lessen these expenses and discharges by empowering source decrease and reusing items and materials, just as treating the soil and reusing squanders created by their networks. These methodologies are aggregately known as asset preservation and recuperation. 

Forbidding to Spread Corruption on the Land

            Spreading corruption in the land is a clear understanding that people are no longer keeping the law of conserving resources, which in return will result in increasing waste in their surroundings. Corruption being the process of taking much than expected to permit people to access much than expected, has an excellent means of increasing many resources that will remain as waste at the end. In this case, it is essential to prevent corruption as a way of conserving resources. According to Islam, corruption of land is a broad category that applies to anything disturbing Earth's order and collective systems, making the lives of humans or living things unsustainable.

            Based on the Quran, God does not like corruptors; by this Quran, states that; do not desire corruption in the land. Instead, it encourages eating and drinking to provide what He provides as an alternative to committing abuse on the Earth by spreading corruption. The Holy Qur'an has various explicit references to biology and contains some significant standards for natural protection. The primary standard which attends Muslim education on ecological maintainability is the idea of trustworthiness. Being a watchman on the Earth, a man should find a way to guarantee that the dependent property is given to the cutting edge as unadulterated a structure as could be expected under the circumstances.[10] As indicated by Prophet Mohammad, every human being is the caretaker of the environment and should stay concordant with different animals. It is the obligation of all people to regard, support, and attention for the Earth. Allah detests the debasement of different types, comprising ecological defilement, which incorporates mechanical contamination, natural harm, and crazy misuse and blunder of average assets. As per the Holy Qur'an, natural protection is a strict obligation just as a social commitment, and not a discretionary issue. The misuse of a specific regular asset is straightforwardly identified with the responsibility and upkeep of the asset. 

Reduction of Waste by Encouragement to live Simple Life

            It is essential for people to embrace sustainable living; this demonstrates living a lifestyle that helps reduce individual and society utilization of Earth's natural resources and unique resources. Living in a sustainable life helps reduce human ecological footprint; this can be achieved by altering transporting methods, energy consumption, and even managing their diets. Its exponents aim to conduct their lives in a manner that is consistent with sustainability, balancing natural resources, and living in a respectful lifestyle among themselves and natural resources. By encouraging people to live in such a manner helps conserve resources, hence, increasing the chances of managing waste materials in the surrounding.

            Accepting to live a simple lifestyle is greatly encouraged in the Sharia law as Islam is warned of the implications of fewer waste resources at the source.[11] It is well demonstrated in the Quran that people should not be extravagant as Allah hates individuals extravagant with the resources. In this case, people need to understand that living a simple life gives a clear room for them to have a better life that helps maintain wastage of resources. Due to reduced consumption of products brought by simple life living, it reduces wastage of production and input demand for natural resources. Living a simple life can, therefore, be an essential step towards environmental conservation. From the Muslim perspective, the leader Prophet Muhammad encouraged people to live a simple life as he demonstrated that he lived a simple life even if he had all power to live in a life of abundance.

Preserving Forests and Biodiversity

            Biodiversity is the term used to demonstrate the range of life on Earth at all its levels, consists of ecosystems. In the same case, it encompasses the evolutionary, ecological, and cultural processes that sustain life within. Failing to manage or maintain forests and biodiversity causes wastage of resources hence increasing chances of waste management failure in the surroundings. Biodiversity supports ecology competence where each creature, irrespective of how slight, all has an important assignment to carry out.[12] For example, a better amount of ecosystems suggests a more impressive variety of yields—additional prominent classes’ classified variation assurances characteristic supportability for all creatures.

            The law and regulation imposed by Prophet Muhammad based on developing an area called "Zuraybu't Taweel" into a forest brought a clear picture of what is meant by protecting or conserving wildlife. The rule imposed by Muhammad demanded that whenever one cuts a tree would, in return, plant a tree. With this guideline, the expanse eventually revolved into forestry; this demonstrated the necessity of conserving the environment by merely preserving forest and biodiversity. Another instance is the mandate generated by Prophet Muhammad that demanded that a region of 13 miles in an expansion that started from the center of Medina city should be preserved. The rules indicated that no one should kill an animal or cut tree within the radius. These rules and regulations created a clear understanding for Muslims the importance of conserving forests; this action demonstrated that preserving trees reduces the chances of waste management. 

Cleanliness

            In the Quran, Allah directs believers on the importance of being and staying clean and pure. On the same, Prophet Muhammad encouraged people on how to be clean and pure. In this, he claimed that Muslims must, therefore, stay clean and pure.[13] With this, he explained that cleanliness and purity are also a preparation for the final day of judgment. Therefore, with this in mind, people need to keep the environment and the surroundings clean; this can only be achieved by managing waste. By keeping the environment clean creates a conducive place to dwell hence demonstrating conservation of the resources. Cleanliness shows there is the proper utilization of resources, which in return reduces waste management.

            From the Sharia law, people cleanliness is demonstrated as a daily obligation for the Muslims where they are urged from the Holy Quran to ensure they clean streets from where they lived. Abu Musa was sent to Al-Khattab to teach Quran as well as to clean the streets.[14] On his teaching, Abu emphasized Allah's message that warned people from relieving themselves in water sources or any other human or creature living burrow. The emphasis related to this maintenance of surrounding demonstrated that people should avoid polluting resources and encourage on the significance of cleanliness. All in all, this is a clear indication that stressed maintaining resources conservation to reduce waste-related issues.

Ministerial Decree, how or why it is related to waste management

            Ministerial decree brings precise needs for hazardous waste document to make sure there are safe treatment, storage, as well as proper disposal of waste management.[15] From the word Ministerial, it can therefore be attested that there is need to follow the set rules by any ministry to ensure the safety of the surrounding. When the surroundings are safe, it means there is waste management in the area.  Different ministry may give decree based on demand for wellness to their ministry. For instance a forest management ministry may give a decree to preserve the forest environment by stating that people should not cut trees. Therefore, under the Ministerial Decree there are different decrees that are related to waste management as follows:

National Aquaculture Policies and Practices

            People are supposed to take care of different kinds of energy; this is because energy relates to the environment that needs proper conservation. There are important authorities given by the royal family. According to royal family, these which are known as Lai’hah makes up resolutions, the council, orders, as well as the circulations. By the national aquaculture policies and practices, people are able to follow the right rules in prevention of water bodies to conserve water. Conserving water bodies reduces chances of waste management in the sense that there will be no wastage or destroying water by pollution.    

Saudi Organic Agriculture Law & by-Law

            Following the Ministerial Decree based on organic agriculture laws, it is clear that engaging in a certain method of agriculture can rely contribute a lot in resources conservation. Engaging in organic agriculture enhances and promotes biological cycles, biodiversity, as well as the manner by which soil is conserved.[16] With such enhancement it becomes clear that there will be better understanding of what is required in reducing the rate of waste management. Organic agriculture reduces waste management by the fact that it conserves usage of chemicals that may lead to pollution of soil or even air.  

Conclusion

            This paper aims to demonstrate how and why Sharia law and Ministerial Decree are related to waste management based on resource conservation. The paper has demonstrated that there is an excellent link between source maintenance and waste administration. The idea of excess management is linked with resource conservation in the sense that proper utilization of resources minimizes the waste management process. Based on Sharia law, it is significant to conserve resources for better waste management. Islamic lessons on the assurance of condition ingrain natural cognizance in its supporters. The worry of Islam towards condition is a widespread one and rises above every topographical boundary and applies to people and every living being and biological frameworks. Also, the Ministerial Decree contributes in resources conservation which in return reduces the waste management in agriculture and aquatic practices.  

Reference    

Adhikari, B. K., Barrington, S., Martinez, J., & King, S. (2008). Characterization of food waste   and bulking agents for composting. Waste Management, 28(5), 795-804.

Ali, M. M. (2011). Holy Quran. Ahmadiyya Anjuman Ishaat Islam Lahore USA.

Anjum, M., Miandad, R., Waqas, M., Ahmad, I., Alafif, Z. O. A., Aburiazaiza, A. S., & Akhtar, T. (2016). Solid Waste Management in Saudi Arabia. Applied Agriculture and            Biotechnology, 1, 13-26. https://www.ecomena.org/solid-waste-management-in-saudi-           arabia/.

Aradhey, A., & Annual, I. B. (2016). USDA–Foreign Agricultural Service, Global Agricultural   Information Network (GAIN), GAIN Report Number: IN6088.

Beigl, P., Lebersorger, S., & Salhofer, S. (2008). Modelling municipal solid waste generation: A             review. Waste management, 28(1), 200-214.

Demirbas, A., Alamoudı, R. H., Ahmad, W., & Sheıkh, M. H. (2016). Optimization of municipal             solid waste (MSW) disposal in Saudi Arabia. Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery,           Utilization, and Environmental Effects, 38(13), 1929-1937.   https://saudigazette.com.sa/article/530393.

Genc, M. (2019). Sustainable Water Management and Planning for the Akarçay River Basin,             Turkey (Doctoral dissertation, Colorado School of Mines. Arthur Lakes Library).

Kareem, W. A., Asa, O. A., & Lawal, M. O. (2015). Resources conservation and waste     management practices in construction industry. Arabian Journal of Business and            Management Review (Oman Chapter), 4(7), 20.

Ouda, O. K., Raza, S. A., Nizami, A. S., Rehan, M., Al-Waked, R., & Korres, N. E. (2016).          Waste to energy potential: a case study of Saudi Arabia. Renewable and Sustainable            Energy Reviews, 61, 328-340.

[1] Kareem, W. A., Asa, O. A., & Lawal, M. O. (2015). Resources conservation and waste management practices in the construction industry. Arabian Journal of Business and Management Review (Oman Chapter), 4(7), 20.

[2]—1 ibid.

[3] Ali, M. M. (2011). Holy Quran. Ahmadiyya Anjuman Ishaat Islam Lahore USA.

[4]—3 ibid.

[5] 3 ibid.

[6] Ouda, O. K., Raza, S. A., Nizami, A. S., Rehan, M., Al-Waked, R., & Korres, N. E. (2016). Waste to energy potential: a case study of Saudi Arabia. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 61, 328-340.

[7] Ali, M. M. (2011). Holy Quran. Ahmadiyya Anjuman Ishaat Islam Lahore USA.

[8] 6 ibid.

[9] Adhikari, B. K., Barrington, S., Martinez, J., & King, S. (2008). Characterization of food waste and bulking agents for composting. Waste Management, 28(5), 795-804.

[10] Aradhey, A., & Annual, I. B. (2016). USDA–Foreign Agricultural Service, Global Agricultural Information Network (GAIN), GAIN Report Number: IN6088.

[11] Adhikari, B. K., Barrington, S., Martinez, J., & King, S. (2008). Characterization of food waste and bulking agents for composting. Waste Management, 28(5), 795-804.

[12] Beigl, P., Lebersorger, S., & Salhofer, S. (2008). Modeling municipal solid waste generation: A review. Waste Management, 28(1), 200-214.

[13] Demirbas, A., Alamoudı, R. H., Ahmad, W., & Sheıkh, M. H. (2016). Optimization of municipal solid waste (MSW) disposal in Saudi Arabia. Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization, and Environmental Effects, 38(13), 1929-1937. https://saudigazette.com.sa/article/530393.

[14] Anjum, M., Miandad, R., Waqas, M., Ahmad, I., Alafif, Z. O. A., Aburiazaiza, A. S., & Akhtar, T. (2016). Solid Waste Management in Saudi Arabia. Applied Agriculture and Biotechnology, 1, 13-26. https://www.ecomena.org/solid-waste-management-in-saudi-arabia/.

[15] Genc, M. (2019). Sustainable Water Management and Planning for the Akarçay River Basin, Turkey (Doctoral dissertation, Colorado School of Mines. Arthur Lakes Library).

[16] Genc, M. (2019). Sustainable Water Management and Planning for the Akarçay River Basin, Turkey (Doctoral dissertation, Colorado School of Mines. Arthur Lakes Library).

Non-GMO Foods

Introduction

  GMO foods are unsafe and they are associated with unintended undesirable consequences. CRISPR is a unique repeated DNA which is used for genome editing. However, there is an argument that the CRISPR produces foreign DNA sequences. Thus, the article addresses the problem of using foreign DNA and the importance of using DNA-free genome editing. The article provides a persuasive tone to let the audience see the importance of using the RGEN RNP tool for genome editing. Note that CRISPR/ Cas 9 technology has been used in genome editing. However, the technology has limitations such as off-target effect. RGEN RNPs technique (DNA-free editing) should be used to induce mutations since it is effective in target sites or it targets site-specific mutations and reduces off-target mutation.

Summary

  Kanchiswamy et al. (2015) asset that RGENs derived from CRISPR are commonly used in genome editing because they are affordable and scalable. However, they are associated with off-target effects and unintended DNA integration. The authors say that researchers have revolutionized a new technology known as RGEN RNPs which enable site-specific nucleases (Kanchiswamy et al. 2015). RGEN RNPs produce efficient genome editing and avoids foreign genetic elements in plant cells. Thus, scientists should use RGEN RNP as an alternative to CRISPR. This is because, RGEN RNP is delivered directly to the cells electroporation and once it enters into the cells, it starts to cut immediately (Kanchiswamy et al. 2015). There is no RNP replacement and hence no molecural footprint occurs.  It is also important to note that RGEN RNP ensures editing efficiency through recombinant Cas enzymes.  

Appeal to logos

 The article uses an appeal to logos or in other words, it persuades the audience by using a diagram that shows how RGEN RNPs target the cell and avoids unintended integration of DNA.  The article states that in genome editing, it is important to select the target site to achieve the epigenetic change. Thus, an epiphenomena editing tool that will target a specific site and delivered into plant cells are needed to achieve the desired modifications (Kanchiswamy et al. 2015). RGEN RNPs is an effective DNA-free editing tool as it has allele-specific.

Appeal to ethos

 The article uses an appeal to ethos by stating that the US Department of Agriculture supports the use of RGEN RNPs as it target specific DNA sequences and hence it does not produce GMO products. RGEN RNPs prevents foreign DNA as it specifically targets DNA regions and modifies specific traits (Kanchiswamy et al. 2015). RGEN RNPs are precise and efficient in that during genome editing, it does not leave foreign sequences or in other words, genome editing occurs at DNA specific sites. This means that the USDA has done a comprehensive research and found that RGEN RNPs produce non-GMO products. 

Appeal to pathos

 The article uses an appeal to pathos by stating that currently, the agricultural system has the responsibility of feeding the world population. However, the food is scarce due to climate change, severe warming, drought, and other factors that cause the reduction of food production (Kanchiswamy et al. 2015). Another problem is that plant factories are using methods such as genetic engineering to stabilize the yield of the product. However, genetic engineering is associated with undesirable characteristics. Thus, measures are needed to maintain agricultural food security and ensure that the modern technologies used for plant moderation have global acceptance (Kanchiswamy et al. 2015). The article goes on to assert that if RGEN RNP could be widely adopted, there will be non-GMO as a result of crop improvement.

Conclusion

The article has shown that genome editing tools such as CRISPR/Cas9 have limitations since they induce off-target mutations due to DNA mismatches. However, the article affirms that scientists should adopt the new technology known as RGEN RNPs since it is a DNA-free genome editing that reduces off-target mutations, offers high specificity, and avoids random integration of DNA. 

References

Kanchiswamy, C. N., Malnoy, M., Velasco, R., Kim, J., & Viola, R. (2015). Non-GMO genetically edited

crop plants. Trends in Biotechnology, 33(9), 489-491. doi:

http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.libproxy.db.erau.edu/10.1016/j.tibtech.2015.04.002

Environment

The most important role of the environment is to keep living things alive and healthy. It provides living things with food, shelter, air, water, and any other need. Environmental conditions and factors have an important role in the entire life of human beings. The environment provides the natural beauty that is essential for the human being in terms of physical and mental health. This is because the beauty of nature has a very big impact on our senses. The forest and trees in the environment help to purify the air that the living things breathe by absorbing the harmful gases. The plants help to feed human beings keeping them alive. They also prevent floods that can cause a lot of damage to the environment and living things. The environment controls all the important systems that are vital to the ecosystem. It controls several natural revolutions which help to maintain the natural balance between it and the living things. 

 This makes it vital for human beings to protect and keep the environment clean to live a healthy and pleasant life. Nevertheless, environmental contamination has been on the rise and has become a global threat. Pollution puts a human being's life in danger and destroys the living environment. People are considered the most intuitive living things on earth that can use their intelligence to master new concepts which lead o technological advancement. Technological advancements come with a lot of benefits for the development of the economy but can also destroy the environment. Science and technology are used to make lives better but most often the environment is forgotten. When lives are changed by the technologies, the beautiful nature that surrounds us gets ruined.

Water pollution is among the most momentous stumbling block because there is so much garbage that is being directed to the rivers and the water. Most of the factories dispense the untreated waste from industries and other dangerous chemicals in the water. Pesticides and fertilizers that are used for agriculture are also water pollutants. When the living environment is contaminated, natural ecosystems are immensely affected. Another humanity challenge is the pollution of the air we breathe. The air is polluted by the release of unconfined harmful automotive and industrial smokes. Harmful gases such as carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, chemical fumes among others are air pollutants. Some of these harmful gases are responsible for global warming. Noise pollution also harms the environment mainly on human beings and animals. The environment has a major role in making human being’s parturient on earth possible. This is because all the things needed by a human being to live a full and normal life is from the environment. Human beings cannot live without water, air, plants, and other natural things. Pollution of the environment affects lives economically, socially, physically, and emotionally and as Margaret Mead states, we won’t have a society if we destroy the environment. Maintaining our environment by taking care of it is essential to keeping its originality. As human beings, we should save energy, throw garbage in its rightful places, and stop polluting the environment.

Rights

Every human being is entitled to principles that enable them to have freedom legally, socially, or ethically. These basic rights ensure that every human being is treated equally. Rights work towards protecting the interests and freedom of citizens in a country. Rights are crucial in the development of a country and human beings on a personal level. Rights include having the freedom to live and the freedom to practice any religion, freedom of speech, and movement among others. Each right has a very big impact on the wellbeing of every human being. The right to life safeguards the lives of human beings. The freedom of religion enables humans to worship any religion of their choice. This means that rights enable humans to feel free and have a piece of mind as citizens. When these rights are violated, disagreements and fights erupt making people unhappy and the country not to be at peace. 

The mobilization of humans is made easy by the freedom of movement. This one ensures that there are no restrictions put from traveling to any place a person would wish to or even reside there. This also opens up for work opportunities that are situated away from the current living state or country. The freedom of movement enables people to indulge and interact with other people from different countries and even helps in the exchange programs adding more skills and knowledge. Legal rights allow human beings to experience fair trials in courts. This ensures that justice is served to them and decisions are made with them in mind. Legal rights allow equal treatment to all citizens and are done without any discrimination regardless of gender, social class, sex, or race. Freedom of speech ensures that humans are free to give and express their opinions without fear either by speaking, writing, or printing.

Rights ensure that there is gender equality and it is practiced. In the earlier days, women would be discriminated against men in terms of employment, education, chores, and there place in society. With the development of women's rights, things have taken a new turn, and women are being treated differently. Every citizen is entitled to a right to education up to the level they wish to. This is irrespective of their race, gender, ethnicity, religion, or any other difference that they may be having. This helps in the growth of the country and it’s economic as well when people are learned to get involved in businesses and employment. Rights are also essential in workplaces whereby the employer has his rights and the employee has theirs too. This ensures that there are boundaries and each party should not cross theirs. This generates productivity in the workplace and there is a smooth flow because each party knows their place and what is required of them. Human rights are requisite for a peaceful, free, and happy living for human beings. When citizens and the government work together towards protecting each other and each other’s progress, everything works out well benefiting both of them. 

Pandemic/crisis

A pandemic is a health crisis that causes panic and fear to the people. Through the alarming cases of infections and deaths, a pandemic changes all the usual activities in a country. Institutions close down, businesses are closed, travels are canceled, airports and borders are closed extremely affecting the country’s economy. This is because the virus spreads rapidly and for it to be contained, the government is expected to intervene. When a pandemic strikes, the government is impacted the most because it has to come up with protective measures that will help to keep the uninfected people safe or from contracting the virus. Measures that are put by the government include social distancing, maintaining hygiene, and self-quarantine. The government has to aid the poverty-stricken in the country for example with food and other basic needs such as providing masks and sanitizers. The government should ensure that every person adheres to the measures they put because they help to diminish the spread. For them to reach a lot of people, social media, broadcasting houses, radios, and any means of communication are used. This is done to ensure that every single person gets information about the preventive measures and their significance.

A pandemic causes loss of jobs because of the closure of businesses. This leaves people grappling on the living standards and putting food on the table. It causes people to cry out to the government for help. The closure of schools brings lots of confusion and has a great impact on the teachers, families, students, and their studies. Teachers come up with different platforms that can reach the student and mainly it is done through the internet. It is unfortunate for the students who don’t have access to the internet or smartphones because they tend to miss on all the lessons and assignments. Television programs bring educational content to students. All this is disadvantageous for poor students who cannot afford a television or the internet. So there is a gap between the different classes of people in the time of a pandemic and the less fortunate tend to lose on a lot of opportunities. The closure of airports and borders prevent businesses from taking place. People who depend on these businesses are hit hard and are left with no income.

During a pandemic, the number of infected people keeps rising each day. Many deaths are experienced too even when the doctors try to contain it. In some countries, the government orders for a total lockdown to try and stop the spread of the virus that spreads too fast. The number of cases in a day is overwhelming and a lockdown is a measure by the government that discourages social interaction from people. Whenever there is a pandemic outbreak, vaccines are not available and it takes time before it is developed. The doctors use other methods of treatment to deal with the virus before the vaccine is developed. Neither the world nor the government is ever ready for a pandemic. That is the reason that countries suffer economic shocks during and after a pandemic. Countries that are not financially able to handle the pandemic resolve to borrowing money from other countries. Countries should come up with strategies that help to prepare for a pandemic so that it does not cause an enormous impact.

Crime

Engaging in any misconduct that is against the law is committing a crime. Crime is punishable by law and includes misconduct such as murder, robbery, possessing drugs, rape, and any other delinquency that is forbidden by the law. Classification of a crime is done according to the seriousness of the misdemeanors or felonies. Misdemeanors are usually punishable by a fine or less imprisonment compared to felonies which are considered more serious. Many felony offenders are sentenced to prisons. Crime continues to be one of the biggest challenges that are faced in society. In one way or another, people lose their lives daily because of crime. Criminal gangs that control neighborhoods in our societies commit homicide and robbery felonies day in day out making people live in fear. Factors that contribute to crime include unemployment, lack of education, and poverty. The reason is that many of the culprits that have been arrested have been found to have either of these traits. People that have these traits are people that resolve to commit crime as a way to earn a living. It is obligatory for this problem to be fixed because if it is not, crime will keep growing each day and people will continue losing their property and their lives. To fix the problem, it is important to learn about the causes and deal with them first. When the factors that contribute to crime are addressed, the society and the entire country will experience reduced crimes.

Crime causation can be elucidated as being biological, sociological, and psychological. This is because perpetrating crime depends on the biological and psychological state of a person and their social interactions in their residents. Peer influence is another factor that leads to crime. Most young offenders are influenced by their peers to commit a crime and because of their poor judgment or naivety, they oblige. The use of drugs in societies pushes individuals to commit crimes. Very many young people believe that committing a crime will make them respected and will enable them to get money and will satisfy them in terms of drugs, fashion, and sex. Emotional and psychological weaknesses of these young delinquents prevent them from making their own choices and fall for these prey that manipulate them into joining their gangs and committing crimes. In the long run, they end up being sentenced to jail. Another factor that contributes to the crime committed by young people is poor parenting. Children always want to have a sense of belonging and when a child is raised with no love they tend to find solace elsewhere and sometimes they fall in traps or the hands of wrong people. To try and curb crime, every person in the society should be treated equally despite their gender, race, neighborhood, or class. Discrimination and favoritism should be avoided at all costs. Opportunities should be created for every person and this will make people feel wanted in the society hence reduce the crime rate.

Uncertainty

Uncertainty generates anxiety and makes it difficult for a person to be ready for the different occurrences in life or even have control over them. Uncertainty makes decision making a very complicated puzzle. This is because it makes a person have different emotions that affect the mental stability to even make the right decision. Some of these emotions are worrying too much which are a good and bad emotion. Worry can be helpful when it is aimed at adaptive behaviors that reduce risks. Chronic worry may cause stress that greatly impacts the health of the heart and can eventually lead to depression. Internal reactions and emotions to uncertainty are normal to a human being but can make a person act in impulsive actions that weaken their self-confidence. Self-confidence is a very important aspect of a human being because it contributes to a person believing in themselves, their abilities, and their judgment. Mental health issues, eating disorders, anxiety is associated with a dislike for uncertainty. Uncertainties lead to changes in life that we are or not prepared for or things that we don’t expect at all. These changes can have a positive impact on our lives or can tear us down. Jim carry states that if you aren't in the moment, you are either looking forward to uncertainty, or back to pain and regret. It feels comfortable knowing what to expect and that we have something to look forward to. The problem comes when what we expected fails and we have no power to control it. This results in anxiety, discomfort, fear and these are things that can break us.

 As a human being, going past your fear of uncertainty can lead to exploring aspects in life that you never knew existed. This makes uncertainty and change beautiful and have positive outcomes. It makes us try out new things and meet new people who eventually become part of our lives. Uncertainty and change are significant in the process of creating and living the life we desire to and the people we want to become. Though it’s had, it is sometimes good to embrace the part of not having everything figured out at all times. This is because sometimes we want to start new chapters in our lives or have big ideas that we want to put into action and uncertainty destroys it all. Uncertainty can be a cause of human stagnation and this is because every time you think of something new to try, uncertainty will bring fear and a lot of confusion. Uncertainty should not be a barrier to happiness and therefore it is important to embrace it and try to make the right decisions for yourself.

Economy/financial

The economy is concerned with the production of goods and services and how much the economy produces. It is also concerned with the precise amalgamation of the goods and services and how much each firm produces. The economy also includes the methods of production that are used and the amount of workforce. Finance is a part of economics that is concerned with providing funds to businesses, individuals, and the government. From the writings of Adam Smith and others, economics is considered as a handmaid of ethics, but in modern technology, economics is a handmaid of finance. This means that economic activity associates with the real world of tangible goods and services while finance associated with the money world. When we understand the difference between the barter economy and money economy, the role of money and the difference between them becomes crystal. Finance has a significant role in the economy. Finance grants different entities to purchase goods and invest in projects through credit. When financial institutions offer credit to the different entities, they help to grow the economy by administering funds from savers to borrowers. This enables individuals to be able to fund their projects or acquire items and properties and gradually pay back at a considerable amount of time. 

In the industrialized nations, taxes collected by the government form a large segment of the nation’s total economic activity. Taxes enable the government to meet the demands of a country. This is because the money collected through taxes is used to finance social projects. These projects include health services and medical care. It also finances education which is a very deserving project in a country. In government projects, taxes are used to pay public workers, parliament members, and police officers among others. The government also utilizes the money collected from taxes to fund sectors that are important for the welfare of citizens. This means that taxes are very important to a government because it would be difficult to raise enough money to fund all these projects. Because of the contribution of taxes, they help to prompt economic growth which has an enormous impact on the economy of the country. This causes the elevating of living standards and expanding the creation of jobs. Taxes are also used as an impediment for activities such as smoking and consumption of alcohol. They make it effective by foisting high excise levies on these products as a way of discouraging people from purchasing or selling them. For businesses to proliferate in a country, a good infrastructure is vital and taxes that are used to develop infrastructure helps to promote economic activity. Taxation is also significant for businesses because governments finance the money back to the economy in terms of loans and other financing firms. Because the standards of living are raised by taxes, there is growth in the level of consumption making businesses flourish. Taxes are indispensable and it is meant to benefit every citizen in a country. People must comprehend the importance of contributing to taxes because they work towards growing businesses and the economy as well.