Generativity

 Generativity refers to a concern developed in an individual during the mid-ages whereby they have the need to guide and nurture the young into the next generation.  Generativity theory refers to involve a predictive premise of individual behavior creation. This theory assets that noble behavior in an individual results from dynamic interactions among behaviors that have been established in the past or rather interconnections among old ideas lead to new ideas for that matter.  In addition, in learning process the creativity skill can be learnt through various strategies which can enhance innovation.  This process of interrelation is predictable and orderly.  This theory was coined and proposed in early 1980s by Robert Epstein, an American psychologist after carting out various studies of people and animals (Hutchison, 2008).  

Generativity helps in preventing stagnation so that instead of using ones energy in helping others, he or her energy is used in focusing on personal needs. In this manner, generativity helped by the personality of a person to flourish even when they are providing essential support or sustenance for the next future generation.  The personality of a person determines their care-giving tendencies so that generativity is enhanced more by those people whose character is defined by commitment and concern for the next generations. Their personality enhances generativity when they energetically follow their concern for the welfare of the next generation.

 Generativity and gender relationship results from the social motives of both adults and may relate to either communal or agentic motives.  For the female gender the need and power to nurture the next generation relates to their parenting roles so that women have are highly drawn to parenting than the men. In addition, the motive for the female can be associated with some generative expressions that are outside the household and the opposite pattern can be found for both genders ( Chakraborty & Das, 2013)..  The physical functioning for each gender comes into play so that women who give birth to the next generation have a higher affinity to caring and nurturing while men’s role of providing for the family actuates generativity.  Men tend to enhance generativity only after being parents, so that their leaning towards parental generativity is more explicit through disciplining and nurturing of their offspring.  They initiate their offspring into family tradition, and continue guiding, supporting, teaching and protecting them while in their adolescent years.  Female on the other hand can be said to enhance generativity biologically and this relates to bearing and raising their infant as a generative object genders ( Chakraborty & Das, 2013).

The presentation was quite was quite successful considering the kind of information acquired through the understanding the generativity theory and the concept held there in. The results of the survey indicate that most participants understood the meaning of generativity and even the theory behind with an indication of 5 for strong agree with this. In addition, many of the respondents indicated that they understood the contribution of generativity gender and personality towards generativity. Most indicated that information on generativity was clear and they understood how to increase their generativity.

Reference

Hutchison, E. D. (2008). Dimensions of human behavior. Los Angeles, Calif: Sage Publications.

Chakraborty, N., & Das, S. (2013). Influence of psychiatric morbidity and self-efficacy on midlife generativity. Indian Journal of Health and Wellbeing, 4(7), 1374.

Is College Worth It?

A college education is important depending on the major chosen by the student, the future financial gain accruing and the ability of such education to prepare the student for the harsh economic times. To determine whether college education is worth the cost of education, one has to look at economic and social benefits arising from it.

Stephanie Owen and Isabel Sawhill  notes that college  students make more money that people with only high school education according to study. They also argue that there is a big variation in education’s returns depending on specific factors like the field of study and the institution attended (Owen and Sawhill, 2013).  Sanford J. Ungar on the other hand asserts that the job market is hard on all college graduates regardless if their focused career choice (Ungar, 2010).  He advocates for students to undertake education in liberal arts institution which is usually well-rounded since it covers art, sciences and math . Freeman A. Hrabowski on his part point to the fact that data has shown that college graduates are more like to obtain employment than people with just a high school qualification (Hrabowski, 2013).  I suggest that the above arguments points towards a common fact, which is that the kind of education obtained in college determines one’s prospects of having financial returns and better life. Choosing the right major and institution of learning will provide an opportunity for student to have a meaningful education (Slattery, 2016).

 Given that people who attend good colleges and major on the right career path obtain future economic benefits than those with such qualification, I take the stand that college education is worth the time and cost associated with it.   Education matters in regard to the future economic benefits arising from it.

Reference

Cyberbullying In High School

Introduction

Cyber bulling is a major concern in the modern society because of the use of all sorts of technology. Many cases of cyber bullying are reported especially among high school students. It has been reported that cyber bullying has been a major cause of teen’s suicide in most states all over America. It is therefore considered illegal since it results to negative consequences that affect learning in all institutions not only among the high school students. People are mean behind the computers and harass others. Harassment is considered illegal in many states therefore cyber bullying is illegal and should not be carried out. Therefore this paper will focus on analyzing cyber bullying and supporting the fact that high school students who commit cyberbullying should be suspended from school.

To begin with cyber bullying is one form of bullying regardless of whether it is not physical bullying. Students who physically bully others in schools are always suspended. This support the fact that those who practice cyber bullying should face suspension too since they are practicing one form of bullying. Cyber bullying does not affect a student physically but affects students mentally and emotionally therefore interfering with the normal learning of that student (Willard, 124). Most students who undergo cyber bullying are often depressed, have low self esteem and eventually commit suicide if they are not well counseled. This supports the reason why students who carry out cyber bullying need to get suspended from schools. Schools should not only suspend the bully but also come up with programs which will prevent bullying from taking place in the schools.

Cyber bullying is one of the most causes of suicide cases among the teens. The young generation prefers to socialize via social media therefore spending most of their time in Twitter and Facebook. Bullies can interfere with the minds of these teens therefore harassing them online and following on to emotional problems among those who get harassed (Martella et al, 112). This supports the fact that those bullies should be suspended from schools.

On the other hand some people feel that students who practice cyber bullying do not need to get suspension from schools since they carry out the activities outside the school premises. People argue that if students do not get rewards or punishments for activities they carry out outside school, cyber bullying should not be an exemption since is carried out outside the school premises (Willard, 127). Schools reward and punish students when they are in schools therefore cyber bullying should not lead to students getting suspensions.

It is hard for people to pinpoint the bully. Bullies are always anonymous students or people therefore it becomes hand for them to get pinpointed. Therefore it is hard for schools to identify those students who practice cyber bullying.

Conclusion

Cyber bullying is a major issue that needs attention from schools in order to prevent increasing cases of bullying that eventually causes suicide cases among students. Students who are caught practicing cyber bullying should be punished and suspended from schools since they cause harm to their fellow students therefore interfering with the normal learning process. It is unfair for students who have fulfilling lives to commit or have suicidal attempts because of cyber bullying. Cyber bullying need to get stopped since it will end up claiming lives of bright students who would be better people in future. Lives of young people should not be cut short because of bullying which can be dealt with by both the government and schools.

Work Cited

Willard, Nancy E. Cyberbullying and Cyberthreats: Responding to the Challenge of Online Social Aggression, Threats, and Distress. Champaign, Ill: Research Press, 2007. Print.

Martella, Ronald C, Ronald C. Martella, J R. Nelson, Nancy E. Marchand-Martella, and Mark O'Reilly. Comprehensive Behavior Management: Individualized, Classroom, and Schoolwide Approaches. Los Angeles: Sage, 2012. Print.

Recidivism in America

Abstract

            Like most countries, the United States is troubled with the issue of crime and has sought out various ways of eradicating the menace that is crime. However, unlike most countries, ex offenders in the America tend to go back to crime and get re-arrested even after serving long prison terms. While prisons are intended to act as deterrents to crime, they systems seem not to be working as ex offenders have no problem engaging in crime soon after they have been released. As a result, the United States tends to have a higher recidivism rate despite is strict policies against crime. Since most countries send criminals to prison for crimes committed, the difference in the recidivism rate amongst these countries could be as a result of the approach that different countries take when dealing with inmates. Countries that focus more on rehabilitation than punishment have been known to have lower recidivism rates. If the United States is to reduce its recidivism rate, it needs to adopt some of the policies used by such countries and focus more on rehabilitating inmates so as to discourage them from going back to a life of crime after they are released.

Introduction

Over 10 million people are locked up in prison institutions around the world serving their punishment for respective crimes committed. Out of this number, The United States accounts for 25% of the population despite contributing to only 5% f the human population (Deady 2015 p. 1). Most of the times, prisons are intended not only to hold prisoners but also discouraging them from actions that may lead them back to prison. The goal is often to rehabilitate prisoners such that they are equipped with the skills needed to survive in society without having to engage in crime. However, despite crime having dropped, the recidivism rate remains high in the United States compared to other countries (Deady 2015). Often times, prisoners released from jail often end up going back for same crimes or different ones. While there could be various factors causing recidivism in the United States, the goal is to analyze why recidivism is more in the America than when compared to other countries.

 A review of research suggests that there is variety of factors that might contribute to recidivism. Some of these factors include educational deficiencies, lack of job skills, a criminal history, poor or inadequate housing accommodations, diminished employment opportunities, and deteriorating neighborhoods that might significantly contribute to a relatively high recidivism rate among ex-offenders (Lockwood &Nally 2016). These factors will be studied in greater detail in this paper as the author attempts to better understand what leads U.S parolees to more often than not end up back in prison. This paper will compare the prison systems of America to those of other countries; countries who are much more successful in rehabilitating a significant number of their prisoners. Finally, this paper will make policy recommendations regarding ways the recidivism rates could be reduces in the United States.

Literature review

            According to Deady (2014), one in every American citizen who is an adult has been in prison. Although crime has gone down in the United States, the number of prisoners going back to jail after being released is higher in the United States than it is in other countries. Even with the decrease in the levels of crime in the country, the United States has had a higher number of prisoners when compared to other countries. This is mainly because crime is dealt seriously in the country and prisoners get longer terms than they do in other countries (Deady, 2014). The policy used is to ensure that the sentence is equal to the crime committed as a means of delivering justice. While this may be a good way of punishing criminals, it does little to rehabilitate them (Deady, 2014).

Ho et al (2014) argues that the high rate of recidivism in the United States is as a result of the harsh environment that criminals meet after leaving prison. Most criminals lack the skills and knowledge required to get a good job and this may be the reason as to why they engaged in crime in the first place. While imprisonment does punish the criminals, it does little to help them survive in the outside world after they are released from prison. The lack of skills and education makes it difficult to financially support their livelihood through legal means and this often leads them to a life of crime. Other factors such as recession make it even more difficult for prisoners to find work after they are released. Other than the decline in the number of jobs available, a criminal background makes it even more challenging for ex offenders to find employment as most people are unwilling to employ a person who has been to prison regardless of the crime committed (Ho et al, 2014). Since employers have access to a potential employee’s background, criminals like sex offenders have a hard time getting employed as people are unwilling to hire them with the claim that they want to guarantee their customers and their children’s safety. Criminals who have been released from prisoners find it difficult to compete with people without prison records not to mention the lack of skills and knowledge needed to get a good job. One way of reducing recidivism is by ensuring that criminals who get released from prison get employment as this will provide with the means to support their livelihood. Failure to get employment makes it difficult to survive in society and ex offenders often result to engaging in crime since the legal means of earning a living do not work for them. If America is to reduce the rate of recidivism in the country, it must come up with a way of helping ex offenders so as to discourage them from going back to crime in an attempt to support their livelihood (Ho et al, 2014).

According to Gamo (2013), prisons are intended to punish criminals for crimes committed and also as deterrents to crime. While this may be true, countries like Philippine have discovered that placing too much emphasis on punishment that on rehabilitation and deterrence greatly contributes to the rate of recidivism in a country. As a result, the Philippines is now placing more emphasis on rehabilitating criminals as a deterrent to crime rather than using the prison system as a tool for punishment. After its long history in punishing criminals, the justice system has seen great change to the extent that the death sentence has been abolished to pave way for more ideal methods that will rehabilitate prisoners as they pay for the crime they committed (Gamo, 2013). The traditional method of using prisons as a way of punishing criminals is now considered as counterproductive especially due to the high rate of recidivism that existed. The traditional methods used in the prison systems are being replaced by newer methods that are focused on rehabilitating the prisoner as well as equipping them with the skills and competence that they will need to survive in the outside world after they are released from prison. While prisoners still serve prison sentences for crimes committed, they also learn skills needed to survive in the outside world so as to discourage them from engaging in crime.

            According to Buikhuisen and Hoekstra (1974), recidivism is a problem that has existed in society for a number of years. Studies to explain why some people are likely to engage in crime while others do not and how some people go back to crimes even after being arrested were being conducted even as far back as 1917. However, despite the issue of recidivism being conducted for a long time, most researchers have only relied on criminal records, social enquiries and other forms of existing reports on the offenders. Few researches have used information collected directly from the ex offenders and this raises questions regarding the validity and the reliability of the conclusions drawn from such information. In order to better understand recidivism and come up with a suitable solution, Buikhuisen and Hoekstra (1974) argue that there is a need to collect information from the ex offenders so as to better understand of their delinquency problem and come up with ways to resolve it. Rather than relying on crime records as a source of information to understand the problem, researchers must adopt a system that studies the ex offender’s tendency to go back to crime as a process so as to understand the factors that encourage their relapse into a life of crime. Researchers need to not only focus on the tendency of criminals to go back to a life of crime after prison but also factors in their life that make it difficult to live an honest life (Buikhuisen & Hoekstra, 1974). Research must consider the impact that the ex offenders family, their social environment and the stigmatization around an ex offender makes it difficult to survive in society without going back to crime. This will go a long way into identifying the factors that promote recidivism and how to work around them so as to ensure that ex offenders do not go back to a life of crime.

Behan (2007) argues that America’s tendency to focus on punishing criminals and being stough on crime has greatly contributed to the high rate of recidivism in the country. following the European trend of taking a tough actions against crime, the political rhetoric in the United States has led people into believing that a firm hand is required in order to have a significant impact on the fight against crime. While this may be the case, most political agendas focus on punishing criminals and this has led to the public calling for the justice system to imprison criminals so that they can pay for their crime rather than considering what rehabilitation may have in reducing the crime rate (Behan, 2007). This has led to the adoption of policies that recommend the construction of more prisons so as more criminals can be locked up and use stricter rules as a way of discouraging people from engaging in crime. People are keener on hearing success stories especially when it comes to reducing crime in the country. Instead of looking for better solutions, American policy makers are headstrong in the belief that imprisonment is the best approach to take in the fight against crime. However, the high rate of recidivism in the United States compared to other countries proves that imprisonment is not a valid solution. If it were, ex offenders would come out of prison with little, if any intent to engage in crime after their release (Behan, 2007). However, since prisoners have the tendency of going back to a life of crime after their release, it proves that imprisonment as a form of punishment does little to deter crime. It is therefore important to consider other avenues that deter crime and also reduce the rate of recidivism in the country.

According to Vigesaa (2013), an individual’s tendency to engage in crime is greatly determined by the experiences that the person has been through especially during childhood. People who were abused as children are more likely to engage in criminal activity not only when they are young but also as mature adults. The likelihood of women to engage in criminal activities is greatly increased if a woman experienced child abuse when young and this is seen by the high number of criminals in the justice system having been victims of child abuse. Children who experienced some form of abuse during are also likely to develop alcohol dependence later on in their lives (Vigesaa, 2013). Other than alcohol, most people who were subjected to child abuse tend to use various drugs as a way of helping them cope with the trauma caused by the things they experienced.

 According to the general strain theory, people who experience something that they do not like or that makes them feel uncomfortable causes a strain which leads the individual seeking out different avenues to relieve the effects of the strain. Such strains may be caused by the relationship an individual has with other people or certain conditions in their daily lives that causes discomfort (Vigesaa, 2013). The strain may lead the individual into developing negative emotional states, frustration and anger and this may cause the individual to engage in crime. While the justice system may punish an individual for the crime committed, it is ill equipped in helping individuals with such problems. As a result, prisoners get released with the same mentality and perception they had towards life they had before going into prison. While they ex offenders may try to avoid going back to prison, a strain in their life may trigger an emotion that leads them to crime and thus contributing to the recidivism rate in the country (Vigesaa, 2013).

            Baumer et al (2002) suggests that the best way to reduce recidivism is by using policies that shame the offence that an individual commits without causing permanent trauma to the individual before reintegrating him back to society. Such policies view recidivism both as an individual and a programmatic failure which takes place when the prisoner is unwilling to reform or the method used to encourage reformation have been ineffective. Furthermore, recidivism can also be seen as society’s failure to rehabilitate prisoners and help them see the error of their ways. Instead of just focusing on punishing criminals through prison sentences for crimes committed, the legal system must try to solve the problem at a personal level. This can be achieved by showing the criminals the error of their ways and shaming the criminal activity in such a way that the criminal will not be willing to repeat the crime after leaving prison. Instead of treating crime as a collective problem, the prison system must treat each prisoner as a different case and show them why what they did was wrong and why they should avoid not repeating it.

According to Jung, Spjeldnes and Yamatani (2010) the United States spent 49 billion dollars for corrections out of which 20 billion dollars were spent on jails and the criminal justice system. The funds were spent to facilitate the high number of people held in prisons for various crimes. The United States corrections system is made up of; correctional facilities which are responsible for holding criminals convicted of minor crimes and spend a minimum of one year; jails which are generally bigger and hold prisoners convicted of more serious crimes and stay for longer periods; and prisons which hold more violent criminals from different parts of the country who are convicted for serious criminal offences and serve long sentences including life imprisonment. Often times, criminals go through various corrections facilities before they are finally convicted for life imprisonment and this contributes to the high recidivism rate in the country (Jung, Spjeldnes and Yamatani, 2010).

In a study to test the rate at which prisoners go back to a life of crime after being released from prison, a group of released inmates was studied to see how many would be arrested for crimes similar to the ones they had committed or for different crimes. Out of the inmates released after serving their sentences, two thirds were arrested in the course of three years after their release majority of which were arrested in the first year out of prison. After one year from prison, 44.1 percent of the prisoners were rearrested, 59 percent were arrested in the second year and 67.5 percent in the third year for committing both new crimes and the same ones that some had previously been arrested for (Jung, Spjeldnes & Yamatani, 2010).

According to Skardhamar and Telle (2012), the tendency of ex offenders to go back to prison is greatly influenced by the type of life they find after being released from prison. In order to live a life free of crime, ex offenders must create a meaningful routine of activities to engage in and find a legal source of income to sustain their livelihood so as to avoid going back to crime. Criminals must therefore develop a new sense of identity, reevaluate the choices they make and enhance their self control so as to make legal decisions. Employment is considered to be the best solution to reducing recidivism as ex offenders who find work after being released from prison are less likely to go engage in criminal activities. As a result, countries like Norway ensure that prisoners leave the justice system with the skills and knowledge to get a good job that will help the ex offender to earn a living and deter them from crime. However, the same cannot be said of the United States as most focus is on punishing criminals rather than rehabilitating them and preparing inmates of a life outside prison.

Vacca (2004) has it that prisoners that go through educational programs while in prison are less likely to go back after they have been released.  In countries that prisoners get appropriate education while incarcerated, the recidivism rate is relatively low. Furthermore, prisons that offer educational programs to their inmates are also less violent and have inmates who have a positive attitude towards a life out of prison. Some of the programs that have been to be effective in rehabilitating prisoners are those that help them to develop their artistic side, improve their social skills and equip them with techniques that they can use to cope with their emotions. Since prisoners who take up these programs are hopeful for a better life outside the prison system, there is a high likelihood that such inmates will be less likely to go back to crime as they have the desire to become better members of society. However, the success of such programs is greatly hindered by overcrowded prisons and lack of funds to support the requirements of the programs. Governments must therefore focus more on supporting these programs to ensure that the inmates who are already incarcerated to not end up in prison again.

            According to Ferguson and Marbley (2005), the prison system in the United States house more than 2 million prisoners making America the leading country in term of incarcerations. While the prison system is intended to deter crime and rehabilitate criminals as they serve justice for the crimes committed, the country also has a high recidivism rate compared to other countries. Out of the prisoners released from prison, 29.9 percent are arrested again after just 6 months and by the third year, 67.5 percent of inmates released have already been arrested and sent back to prison (Ferguson & Marbley, 2005). This proves that arresting all criminals and sending them to prison is not the most ideal deterrent of crime and new avenues must be pursued is the recidivism rate in the United States is to be reduced.

Dirkzwager (2017) argues that the duration that inmates spend in prison has little, if any, impact in reducing recidivism. Often times, prisoners are given long prison sentences in the hope that the time they spend there will help them to see the error of their ways. They are also considered to be crime deterrents as people do not want to spend years of their time in prison. While this may be true, long prison sentences rarely reduce recidivism. Often times, long prison times cut the social ties that the inmates had established with the community. Since prison has different laws and social interactions, long sentences forces people to adapt to the prison life. The consequences of this are seen when inmates are released from prison and are unable to cope with society since they were used to the prison systems. The inability to adjust often leads ex offenders into engaging in crime and this leads them back to prison (Dirkzwager, 2017).

Discussion and recommendation

            In the United States, the justice system places a lot of emphasis on ensuring that criminals pay for the crime that they have committed. When making rulings, criminals are either required to pay fines or serve prison sentences that are equal or justify the nature of the crime that they committed. Since imprisonment is the most common form of punishment, a lot of effort has been put into ensuring that the prison system is well equipped to ensure handle the various criminals sent there for various offences (Ferguson & Marbley, 2005). Furthermore, the United States tends to be very strict on crime and a lot of effort has been put to make America a safe environment for all of its citizen and example of which is the continuing war on drugs aimed at eradicating drug abuse and criminal activities associated with the drug trade.  While a lot of effort has been put into eradicating crime and serving justices, the same cannot be said of the legal system’s approach towards rehabilitating criminals as a means of deterring crime in the country (Dirkzwager, 2017).

            Unlike other countries, the United States considers sending criminals as an ideal deterrence to crime. The idea is that sending criminals to prison as punishment for crimes committed will discourage others from engaging in such criminal activities thus reduce the crime rate in the country. There is also the belief that criminals will be less likely to engage in crime after being released from prison out of fear of going back (Baumer et al, 2002). While this may be true to some extent, the simple act of sending criminals to prison is not enough to deter crime and reduce the crime rate in the country and this can be seen by the high rate of recidivism that the United States has compared to other countries. While sending criminals to prison is an ideal form of punishment, the United States misses out on the opportunity that other countries have relied on to reduce their recidivism rate. Rather than just sending criminals to serve their sentences, other countries like Norway take this as an opportunity to rehabilitate the criminals and help them to live a crime free life upon release. Although they serve out their sentences for crimes committed, criminals are assisted while in prison where they are taught important skills that will help them to survive in society after they are released without having to go back to a life of crime (Behan, 2007).

            In order to reduce the rate of recidivism in the country, the United States must place more emphasis into rehabilitating prisoners than it does in punishing them. Imprisonment is not the solution to reducing the crime rate in the country especially because most of the criminals go back to a life of crime after release (Buikhuisen & Hoekstra, 1974). Rather than just relying on crime and harsh prison sentences as a deterrent to crime, the United States must focus on other more effective methods such as rehabilitating prisoners through training and educational programs while still at prison. Since the prisoners are already serving the punishment for their crimes, the time they spend in prison could be used to train them on the skills they need to earn an honest living as well as rehabilitating them so as to ensure that they do not go back to a life of crime upon release (Skardhamar & Telle, 2012).

            A good way of rehabilitating prisoners involves is by incorporating educational programs in prisons so as to train and equip prisoners with the skills and competence they need to earn a living once they are released from prison (Vacca, 2004). One reason that has been pointed out as the reason behind recidivism is the challenges that ex offenders face in their attempt to fit back into society once their prison term is complete. Other than the unwillingness of employers to hire people with criminal records, the lack of skills to earn an honest living limits their ability to find work or to earn an honest living. According to Skardhamar and Telle (2012), ex offenders who are unable to get employment after release from prison have a higher chance of being re-arrested than those who manage to find employment. It is therefore important to ensure that inmates get the training they need while in prison to develop the skills and knowledge that will improve their chances of finding work after they are released. Through the educational programs offered in prison, the United States will be able to reduce the rate of recidivism by ensuring that majority of the inmates seek legal means of earning a living upon release (Vacca, 2004).

            According to vigessa (2013), people who experienced some form of child abuse are more likely to engage in crime than those who were not. While the decision to engage in crime may not be intentional, strains experienced in society may lead an individual into a life of crime as a way of coping with the effect of the strain. Because of this, prison systems must also focus on rehabilitating inmates and helping them to cope with past trauma that could be the result of their tendency to engage in crime. If prisons focus on helping inmates to understand their nature and what makes them more susceptible to a life of crime, they will be able to assist prisoners in realizing the error of their ways and instill a desire for positive change (Gamo, 2013). By viewing inmates as individuals and not collectively as criminals, the prison systems will be in a better position to understand what led the inmate into engaging in crime and what can be done to prevent it from happening. The goal is therefore to understand the root of the problem, such as trauma inflicted through child abuse, and coming up with a solution for it. In doing so, the prisons will be able to successfully rehabilitate the prisoners, equip them with the skills they need to live a crime free life and in doing so, reduce the rate of recidivism in the united states.

Conclusion

            The United States prides itself on offering a safe and secure society for all its citizens by being strict on crime and ensuring that criminals are punished accordingly. While this may be a positive approach, it has created a system where American citizens expect immediate results from the country’s war on crime policies. In order to accommodate the strict approach taken to fight crime, a lot of effort has been put into increasing the number of prisons so as to accommodate the number of criminals arrested. However, simply taking them out of the streets has done little to reduce the crime rate and has rather increased the rate of recidivism in the country. Inmates who get released often go back to crime after serving their sentence because they either lack the opportunity or the skills and knowledge needed to lead an honest life. The United States must therefore emulate other countries that have low rates of recidivism so as to learn how to prevent ex offenders from going back to a life of crime. One way to achieve this is by rehabilitating inmates through prison education programs. By adopting such policies, America will be able to equip inmates with the skills and knowledge they need to survive life out of prison without having to engage in crime and thus reduce the recidivism rate in the country.

References

Baumer, E. P., Wright, R., Kristinsdottir, K., &Gunnlaugsson, H. (2002). CRIME, SHAME,        AND RECIDIVISM: The case of iceland. The British Journal of Criminology, 42(1), 40-           59.

Behan, C. (2007). Report from the european prison education association. Journal of Correctional Education, 58(3), 219-221.

Buikhuisen, W., & Hoekstra, H. A. (1974). Factors related to recidivism. The British Journal of Criminology, 14(1), 63-69.

Carver, L. J., & Harrison, L. M. (2016). Democracy and the challenges of correctional education. Journal of Correctional Education, 67(1), 2-16.

Deady, C. W. (2014). Incarceration and Recidivism: Lessons from Abroad. Administration of      Justice, Global Challenges, 1-5.

GAMO, M. D. (2013). Voices behind prison walls: Rehabilitation from the perspective of            inmates. Philippine Sociological Review, 61(1), 205-227.

Jung, H., Spjeldnes, S., &Yamatani, H. (2010). Recidivism and survival time: Racial disparity among jail ex-inmates. Social Work Research, 34(3), 181-189.

Kroner, D. G., &Yessine, A. K. (2013). Changing risk factors that impact recidivism: In search of mechanisms of change. Law and Human Behavior, 37(5), 321-336.

Lockwood, S. K., Nally, J. M., & Ho, T. (2016). Race, education, employment, and recidivism among offenders in the united states: An exploration of complex issues in the indianapolis metropolitan area. International Journal of Criminal Justice Sciences, 11(1), 57-74.

Marbley, A. F., & Ferguson, R. (2005). Responding to prisoner reentry, recidivism, and incarceration of inmates of color. Journal of Black Studies, 35(5), 633-649. doi:10.1177/0021934704270254

Nally, J. M., Lockwood, S., Ho, T., & Knutson, K. (2014). Post-release recidivism and employment among different types of released offenders: A 5-year follow-up study in the united states. International Journal of Criminal Justice Sciences, 9(1), 16-34.

Ostermann, M. (2013). Active supervision and its impact upon parolee recidivism rates. Crime & Delinquency, 59(4), 487-509. doi:10.1177/0011128712470680

Skardhamar, T., &Telle, K. (2012). Post-release employment and recidivism in norway. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 28(4), 629-649.

Vacca, J. S. (2004). Educated prisoners are less likely to return to prison. Journal of Correctional Education, 55(4), 297-305.

Vigesaa, L. E. (2013). Abuse as a form of strain among native american and white female prisoners: Predictors of substance-related offenses and recidivism. Journal of Ethnicity in Criminal Justice, 11(1), 1-21. doi:10.1080/15377938.2013.739384

Wermink, H., Nieuwbeerta, P., Ramakers, A. A. T., de Keijser, J. W., &Dirkzwager, A. J. E. (2017). Short-term effects of imprisonment length on recidivism in the netherlands. Crime & Delinquency, , 0011128716687290. doi:10.1177/0011128716687290

Informal vs Formal Assessments

Introduction

 Assessment is a process of evaluating and measuring the learning progress, acquisition as well as the educational needs.  In addition, it is a process of data collection and making decisions on how to progress the education. Both formal and informal assessments are used, and both involve observation of motor performance. The observation results from the assessment are analyzed to produce a conclusion. Assessment is important in that teachers gain the ability to understand the students’ needs and to implement effective teaching programs. Assessing or observing children are a critical element in altering the children’s behavior. On the same note, assessment is a valuable part of teaching and the techniques used play a significant role in ensuring Individualized Education Program (IEP). The important point is that assessment focuses on individuals and programs since these two determines what is needed to effectively progress the education. Assessment has a major goal of weighing up the student’s strength. In addition, assessment is not designed for teaching but rather it is a process of observing students’ learning ability and after assessment, it is easier to plan the needs of students. Thus, teachers should take care not to depress students but they should creat a starting point and provide instructions.  Informal and formal assessments are techniques used and the purpose of this paper is to compare the strengths and weaknesses in these tools and make recommendation on when to apply a particular assessment in classroom.

Formal assessment

Formal assessment is a measuring method in which standardized tests are used in measuring performance (Harlen, 2007). Standardized tests mean that teachers measures the students’ performance against other students’ in the school or in other districts. Results are compared with other schools in district or national level and teachers are able to implement effective teaching programs to foster learning. For example, formal assessment is required in creating an Individualized Education Program after assessing gross motor performance. Various students with special need require a special help and through formal assessment, teachers understands their special needs and implement an effective programs to meet their needs (Harlen, 2007). The standardized measures create the conclusion based on learning advancement. During this instructional period, formal assessment tells whether students have improved or not. Using the formal grading system, teachers evaluate the student’s performance and help each student improve learning. In the process of formal assessment, teachers concentrate on intellectual ability which can be done through measuring motor skills, language skills and more. Other type of formal assessment include Criterion-Referenced Tests-teachers measures the ability of student to use instructional objectives (Radcliff, 2007). The latter is compared with classroom or district to analyze the intellectual level of the students. Program Tests, Teacher-Made Tests are used in formal assessment in measuring students’ retention.  Last, formal assessment use Essay Tests where students are given a specific assignment to measure the content knowledge as well the writing ability (Radcliff, 2007).

Strengths

 Formal assessment has a number of strengths as it has the ability to examine variables such as academic skills, cognitive abilities and more. Due to its intervening planning, formal assessment consigns executive skills problems and the evaluator can identify the skill weakness and implement the interventions which will address the weakness (Callahan, 2006). Other point is that the standardized tests play a big role in comparing the performance of students. The norms of standardized tests such as means of the score make the formal assessment to have strength.   In this type of assessment, teachers get an insight on the students’ needs and the data helps to evaluate whether the low or high score have impacted the entire school. For example, students are given a test and their answers will determine academic progress of the school (Callahan, 2006).The test may also be given to evaluate the aptitude tests, for example in mathematics, musical talent and more. The overall result will assist in creating a future educational program. Accountability is strength with formal assessment. In this case, formal assessment conducts a research to understand the level of accountability in the school. Valuable tools and concrete data help the educators to evaluate specific subjects and create a program to ensure that students improve their skills.  For example, teachers  puts a great effort and spends extra time to ensure that  when formal assessment will be done, students will not fail but rather they will achieve high grades (Callahan, 2006). Thus, it is accountability of the teacher to offer quality teaching. Strength in formal assessment is   also apparent in arithmetic interpretation. Teachers are able to evaluate the performance and gains reliable and valid results.

 Other strength with formal assessment is seen in the data-driven instruction which discloses proficiency levels. These means that data based on students performance and teacher’s ability will be available. This will help students to set quality goals and teachers will focus on the target areas so that students can achieve the set goals. There is the strength of response to intervention in formal assessment. Through evaluating students’ academic performance and analyzing the academic data from national levels, teachers will understand the level of intervention needed in national level as well as in the classroom. Formal assessment is also apparent since both teachers and student’ have the attitude of ‘Staying on Top’. Teachers usually ask questions based on their role as a teacher, how the students are performing compared with others in national level and more. Students also ask themselves questions regarding their level of their effort in learning, their academic performance compared with their friends and more.  These question creates the need to set achievable goals and to wpork hard in order to ‘Stay of Top’. Finally, formal assessment has strength   because of its Assessment Formats.  This means that there are different forms of formal assessments such a essay, Criterion-Referenced Tests among many.  These and others play a big role in ensuring students develop all types of skills such as problem-solving skills, language skills, writing skills and more.

Weaknesses

 Formal test has a weakness due to overuse of standardized tests.  For example, it is evident that many schools misuse standardized test by using test scores to define success, and teachers’ salary and job security is linked with standardized test performance (Burton & Miller, 1998).  In addition, standardized   has item bias and this negatively affects students especially the bilingual learners. Since educators focus on ‘typical curriculum’, students who need special education are not favored  since their unique objectives  may not be measures and thus  the  education program designed for bilingual will  not  be effective.  Formal assessment is also flawed due to the multiple-choice items in various cases. Even though the multiple-choice items influence efficient scoring, responses provided in the formal vary with classroom response (Burton & Miller, 1998). For example, in classroom students may be taught about the word ‘production’ but when it comes in multiple-choices item, the word ‘production’ is changed to ‘syntheses. This alteration affects their performance. In addition, students respond with concrete terms but fail to interpret the response in communication contexts. The issue of multiple-choice item can also be related with the formal assessment weakness in Flawed Test Construction.  Students misinterpret the questions since they have a limited knowledge on that specific question. This affects the performance since some students have intelligence while others have little knowledge (Burton & Miller, 1998). In addition, the single set of expectations   which will determine the total score can affect the students’ academic performance due to anxiety and test conduction. This inconsistency affects the performance comparison. Formal assessment in some cases involves biased items which affect students’ academic performance especially the limited English proficient.  Majority of the items are designed for language, middle-class majority and this is a problem to students who are minority (Burton & Miller, 1998).

Informal assessment

Informal assessment   is a process of measuring students’ performance through observation, interviews, questionnaire, oral discussion, portfolios and more.  In this case, standardized instruments are not used but teachers conduct informal assessment in   either group or individual setting. Unlike formal assessment which deals with grade level standards, informal assessment evaluates the strengths and weakness   not considering the age (Heritage & Stigler, 2010). For example, students may be given running records and they will be scored with the ability to read.  Other example of informal assessment is asking questions after a teaching a certain topic. An important point to note is that informal assessment is important in that it has an immediate feedback and teachers improve teaching techniques with respect to the responses from students. On the same note, this form of assessment is associated with actual activities and teachers can identify visual impairments and assist such students to progress well in academic.  Note that   teachers face a big challenge in identifying visual impartments and implementing program to address the problem. However, informal assessment programs such as environmental assessments, diagnostic teaching and others named above play a significant role in providing bountiful information on each and every student.  Radcliff (2007) asserts that the process of informal assessment is strengthened by self-reflection. This is because, with self-reflection, an instructor and students work together by giving responses and asking more questions.  The instructor continues with process to ensure that goals are achieved.  The author provides an important information by  aspersing that, in order   to have an effective informal  observation, instructors need to be  familiar with  observed activities,  they should  focus on meaning and significant behaviors,  should  limit the observation and observe  few skills  until  experience is gained and  in every situation, they record the observed activities (Radcliff2, 007).

Strengths

Informal assessment has various strengths and one of the strength is authenticity. Informal assessment involves real activities, experiments and discussion.  Real observation   improves academic performance in that students interact within the environment and applies knowledge directly.  For example, a teacher may use a questionnaire after classroom lesson (Dawson & Guare, 2010).Through oral questions; teachers will evaluate the learning ability as well as the level of concentration in each student. Other strength with informal assessment is apparent in its flexibility. This means that by using this form of assessment, teachers can change the teaching techniques and create new strategies which will meet the specific needs of students.  Note that through informal assessment, a teacher will understand the skills of students and he or she will be accountable and find ways to fill the knowledge gap.  Third, this process does not require any planning and students do feel stressed (Dawson & Guare, 2010).  Unlike formal assessment which requires time to set exams, informal assessment involves monitoring and immediate feedback.  It plays a great role in creating teaching strategies and measures students progress.  Other point is that informal assessment involves the subject of interests and there is no connection with instructional time (Gullo, 2005). No comparing is required but rather the important thing is evaluating the strength of the standards.  This process is ongoing and   through interaction with external environment, students develop problem solving skills. This process does not focus on a set of skills but rather it measures the students’ ability in learning. Though standardized test are helpful, informal assessment provides deep understanding of the students more that formal assessment.  For example, through portfolio, students express their views and point down the areas where they have difficulties (Gullo, 2005).  With informal assessment, learning becomes meaningful because students   develops academically and achieves their goals.

Weaknesses

Weaknesses arise due to the stereotypes when administering. In various cases, instructors tend to involve hidden prejudice especially to students who do not offer responses to the asked questions.  This is common because, student may achieve high grades in formal assessment and face difficulties in informal assessment (Gullo, 2005). Having understood this issue, teacher should create an equal ground and understand the ability of each and every student in all education settings.  Other weakness is that informal assessment does not deal with objectives. Note that when observing a specific student, teachers tend to draw conclusion from their personal opinion. For example, a teacher may observe social skill development from a student and record information (Gullo, 2005). Due to lack of number-driven data, personal opinion or positive or negatively mentality on the student may offer wrong interpretation. In such cases, the teacher is unable to detect the strength as well as weaknesses of the student.  Unlike formal assessment, this process is flawed due to lack of validity and reliability (Gullo, 2005). These two play a significant role in measuring long-term goals and objectives of the instructional learning.  In addition, reliability which is connected with scoring criteria play role in measuring the level of competency discrimination.  Information assessment does not offer these variables and thus it is not reliable in academic progress (Gullo, 2005).

Applying formal assessment in classroom

As an instructor, I would apply formal assessment in classroom at the end of instructional unit.  The purpose of is to evaluate the overall achievement and compare the result against benchmark. During grading process, formal assessment will help to understand the school improvement, the students’ level of learning and compare the performance (Harlen, 2007). It is important to measure the students’ knowledge and identify their strengths and weakness in a particular field. The important thing is to draw a conclusion using standardized measures. As an instructor, I believe that continuous assessment is a critical tool in measuring the level of knowledge (Harlen, 2007). Thus, at the end of every course, it is my responsibility to measure whether students have understood the course and whether they should move to the next course.  I would need to have a positive impact on my teaching and thus I would ensure no further learning until a certain topic or unit has been understood well. Since I understand that parents as well as the entire school need to review the progress of the students, formal assessment after covering a specific unit will help in gathering and recording reports which parents and school can access at regular intervals. The evidence that students are performing or progressing well can only be achieved through regular test which are teacher-made tests, self-assessment or district-developed tests (Harlen, 2007). Generally, the purpose of using formal assessment in regular basis is to evaluate the learning progressing over a specific period of time.

Applying informal assessment in classroom

As an instructor, I would conduct informal assessment in classroom after completing very unit. I would use the method of group work and set question which I will ask the groups. In this case, I would ensure that each group provides responses to all questions verbally but not in a written form (Gullo, 2005). The purpose of this method is to analyze whither students have understood the topic and the specific areas which have problems. By listening to their feedback, I would identify their strengths and weakness, the areas which require improvement and implement new strategies to meet the selected areas. I understand there are areas which students might face difficulties but through informal assessment I might be in position to address the problems (Gullo, 2005). Group work is important because students will interact inform of dialogue and expand the learning. In addition, group work is also a method of promoting diversity where students will value the culture of others and share ideas in learning. I would not only expect feedbacks from them but I would also create a group work and give them the opportunity to ask questions. This will help in understanding the areas which need skill development (Gullo, 2005).

Conclusion

Formal and informal assessments are vital tools used in measuring students’ performance.  Formal assessment such as midterm exam evaluates whether the students have understood a specific areas of study and their overall result are compared with other results from district or national level to gauge the performance. Through the various methods of formal assessment, students develop their knolwdge since their scores determines whether they have passed the course or not. In case of failure, students get the opportunity to review the course again in order to fully comprehend each and every component. On the other hand, Informal assessment is method of measuring performance without using standardized test. Methods search observation; questionnaire and more are used to measure the level of performance and to draw conclusion from certain topic. Though both have weaknesses associated with variables measured, they play a significant role in developing students’ academic and strategies of teaching.

Reference

Harlen, W. (2007). Assessment of learning. Los Angeles, CA: SAGE Publications.

Radcliff, C. J. (2007). A practical guide to information literacy assessment for academic librarians.

Westport, Conn: Libraries Unlimited.

Wiliam, D. (2011). Embedded formative assessment. Bloomington, Ind: Solution Tree Press.

Callahan, C. M. (2006). Assessment in the classroom: The key to good instruction. Waco, Tex: Prufrock

Press.

Heritage, M., & Stigler, J. W. (2010). Formative assessment: Making it happen in the classroom.

Thousand Oaks, Calif: Corwin.

Callahan, C. M. (2006). Assessment in the classroom: The key to good instruction. Waco, Tex: Prufrock

Press.

Dawson, P., & Guare, R. (2010). Executive skills in children and adolescents: A practical guide to

assessment and intervention. New York: Guilford Press.

Gullo, D. F. (2005). Understanding assessment and evaluation in early childhood education. New York:

Teachers College Press.

Burton, A. W., & Miller, D. E. (1998). Movement skill assessment. Champaign, Ill: Human Kinetics.

Native American boarding schools and the achievement of the Native children assimilation into the society

Native American boarding  schools  establishment  in the united  states  occurred  during  the  late  19^th  and the early 20^th centuries  to provide education  to  Native American  youths and children  based  on Euro-American  principles[1].  The  schools were  founded  by missionaries  Christians  from  different denominations  who  started the schools mainly  on  denominations and  boarding schools  were  founded  to offer  chances  for  children whose location  was  not  exposed to any  nearby  school particularly  in  areas  which were  lightly  populated  on the west.  Religious  societies  were paid  by the  government to offer  education  to  the  children of  Native  Americans on reservations.  On the  basis of  the  assimilation approach of Carlisle Indian Industrial  School  the Indian affairs  bureau  more  boarding  schools  were founded  in the same period[2].

Native American boarding schools were ultimate instrument for the absorption of individuals and beliefs that hindered the destiny manifestation.  The schools would be able to quickly be able to assimilate the Native children[3]. The first priority of the schools was to offer essentials of academic learning which included writing, reading and speaking the English language. Science, history, arts and arithmetic were also added to increases the potential of discovering the self guided thought power that would lead to the individualization of the Native Indians.  With religious training being conducted in a christen way and the retching of a democratic society’s principles, political structures and institutions the perception of citizenship was being changed.  The end objective was to eliminate all the Native cultures vestiges[4].

Prior  to the 1880s, the  united  states  was operating  approximately  60 schools  for more than six thousand  students  that  included  both  reserved  day and boarding schools[5].  The reserved  day  school  were  more  advantageous  since they were a bit  inexpensive and  caused less objection from  parents.  On the other  hand the reservation  boarding’s  utilized  half  of the learning  days  teaching  English as  a language as well as academics and the rest of the day was utilized on industrial  training.  Regimentation was the day’s order and the Native children spent much hours going to and from class, acquiring meals and the dormitories.  The  children were  taught  order, self  restraint and  discipline  which were  some  of the high  values in the  American whites  society[6].

The boarding  schools were mainly  working on the  hope  of  producing  students who were  economically self  adequate  by training work qualities and the instillation  of beliefs and  values  of possessive  individualism  which implied that  persons were entitled to  making person decisions  based  on their interests  without  necessarily  depending on  societal norms.  This  was  an opposition of the  Native  beliefs  and culture  which  values  collectivism of communal ownership meaning  that  ownership  was  for all  persons. The boarding reservation schools led to the assimilation of the Native children into the larger American society.  Assimilation  that  was  achieved  is the cultural  one  in that  the  children learned and  began to  speak English  to fit into the  society,  most of them  at the  period  become  Christians since  religion  taught  at  the schools was Christian based, they wore  American style clothes,  hair  cuts were  changed  to American style and most of them  lived  in houses  styled  in  the American way  and  preferred  to work in an  economy  that  worked  on the  basis  of  cash[7].

Cultural  assimilation  was achieved  since  children got immersed  in the euro-American  culture through  haircuts changes, the  replacement of  their traditional names  by fresh  Euro-American  names  which were  both  termed as  civilized and based on Christianity  and the  forbidding  of  Native languages speaking[8].  The separation of the children from their families implied that they were being assimilated in different ways since they were separated by culture, language as well as geography.  In that, in several ways, children were mainly encouraged or pressured to dump their Native American cultures and identities.  The primary goal of establishing the schools as the main reform was to utilize education as an instrument of assimilation.  The  Native tribes  would then be assimilated  into the large  American society  and the American  way  of living through  adopting  the American customs, styles, language and  standards[9].

Off reservation boarding  schools implemented  their assault  on  the  cultural  identity  of Natives by eliminating  the  external  experience of  Native  values  that  the  children  carried.  This  began  with  the  change  of  hair style  were the  long  Indian  boys braids  were  cut off  to fit  in the  American style.  The  Native  children were  offered  fresh names  which  included  surnames  based on the  assumption that  this would be  of assistance  when they inherited  properties.  This created fresh beliefs in regard to ownership which was a form of assimilation.  Native traditional  foods were   abandoned  which pressured the  children  in fully adopting  the  white’s society  food  options and  rites   which  included the  use  of  spoons,  forks, knives, tablecloths and  napkins[10].  Children were highly encouraged to communicate in English by forbidding the use   of Native languages in any communication.  Those  that were  able  to  stick to  English  communication  were awarded  but  most of the  schools  depended  on punishment  for those  who  broke the order[11].

At the   developed off reservation boarding schools, students held the opportunity of attaining English literacy degree in a very short period.  The teaching of history was based on definite fair bias. Majority  of the  wok in the schools was accomplished  by  students  since the  schools  were  highly objected  on  creating self sufficient  and the  activities  involved  in  industrial  training  created  the thought  that  the  Natives  held the  ability of  competing economically  with  the  whites. The assimilation was  effective  since the  Native  Indians  began to  compete  economically  with the  whites  which  is evident  even in the modern society[12].

Christianity conversion was considered to be important to the foundation of the boarding schools.  The  schools  were obligated  to create  an instructional plan that made  high emphasis  on  Christianity which  was objected  at implantation  of  sin ideas and the feeling  of guiltiness  which pressured  most  of the  to  convert[13].  Gender  relations  and  all the  relations were  governed  in a Christian  way  which means that  both  genders  were  kept  separate  in most cases. Indian schools  boarding made  discipline  to  be a severe  standard which  resulted  in  confinement, privileges  deprivation, corporal  punishment  and restrictions.  Boarding schools were  viewed  as the  complete  destruction of Indian  cultures and that  was the  pure  intention and  the  main objection was  made since the system destroyed  the  relation amid the parents and the  children. Naturally  the  schools were  highly  refuted by parents and when they  refused  to enroll their children  they were acquired by  police forces. In most  cases  the less  fortunate are  the  ones  that  filled the  vacancies  based on their less  privileges  and also those  that  were impaired physically.

Native parents  ganged  together  in order to get  their  children out of the  off reservation  schools by  encouraging the  children to run away  and even undermining  the  standards and the  influences  of those  schools  during  breaks and summer  periods.  The  ruling of the  court  in the  year 1893 raised  the  pressure  of  keeping Native  children in the  off reservation  schools.  The learning and the assimilation continued until the year 1978 when the Indian Child Welfare Act was passed.  The policy  allowed  the  Native  American parents to  gain the  legal  rights of denying the  children placement  of off-reservation boarding  schools.

The educators  that  were  being paid by the  government  felt  that  the most suitable  way  was offering  Indians  assimilation of focusing on  children. This  meant that  the children  had  to be removed  from their  homes  which  created  greater  influences  in regard  to  language, religion as well as  community  by placing them in off reservation schools which were  being operated  by obvious greater Americans who  worked in ensuring that  assimilation was achieved.  This was the primary pedagogical and philosophical basis of the Native boarding schools. Because  the federal government  and  even the  American  people  did not want  to  utilize much  in the  Native  education, the off-reservation  schools were  expected  to be comparatively  self adequate.  Under the industrial  education  semblance  students mainly served  as a pool of unpaid  workers in provision of  cooking,  cleaning,  sewing,  dairying, farming as well as  other  services.  Because  the  American professions that  provided  training  believed  that  character  would be  shaped  through hard work they  were fully  justified  for not  giving  any kind of  payment to the students[14].

The primary intention of Native boarding institutions was to destroy tribal values and identity.  In the schools children were able to acquire racial awareness[15]. American  society  was  perceived as  racist since the  Native  society  was  being viewed  as a single  and a minor group rather  than some hundreds  cultural entities  since the  Natives were  comprised  of different cultures.  The boarding schools in the period were considering themselves as Indian racial groups which raised the awareness of what races were.  Most  individuals would  believe  that  the  Indian students adapted  easily to the  American  life and  standards which was not  the  actual  case.  The  fact  that  most of the   schools  comprised  of commentaries for the students that  died in the process and  jails for the rebellious  group demonstrates that  the assimilation was  not  acquired  easily[16].

In conclusion,  it  is  clear  that the  Native  American boarding schools were  objected  at  creating  cultural  assimilation  through  the adoption  of the Euro-American  standards, Christian religion as well as  English as a language. The schools ensured that  the speaking of  Native  languages, their  practices  such of that  of haircuts  and dressing were  completely  abandoned by the  institution of strict policies  and the  reliant  on punishment.  Assimilation  of the Native  children  was  partially  achieved  since most of them  adopted  different American  values such as  language and economic  focus. The  schools achieved  assimilation  through  creating  more American  based  perspectives such as  those  regarding  economic  competition and individualism.

Work Cited

Littlefield, Holly. Children of the Indian Boarding Schools. Minneapolis: Carolrhoda Books, 2001. Print.

Trafzer, Clifford E, Jean A. Keller, and Lorene Sisquoc. Boarding School Blues: Revisiting American Indian Educational Experiences. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2006. Internet resource.

Olson, James S, and Raymond Wilson. Native Americans in the Twentieth Century. Provo, Utah: Brigham Young Univ. Press, 1983. Print

Stout, Mary. Native American Boarding Schools. Santa Barbara: Greenwood, 2012. Print.

[1] Olson, James S, and Raymond Wilson. Native Americans in the Twentieth Century. (Provo, Utah: Brigham Young Univ. Press, 1983), 84.

[2] Olson, James S, and Raymond Wilson. Native Americans in the Twentieth Century. (Provo, Utah: Brigham Young Univ. Press, 1983), 84.

[3] Stout, Mary. Native American Boarding Schools. (Santa Barbara: Greenwood, 2012), 27.

[4] Olson, James S, and Raymond Wilson. Native Americans in the Twentieth Century. (Provo, Utah: Brigham Young Univ. Press, 1983), 84.

[5] Stout, Mary. Native American Boarding Schools. (Santa Barbara: Greenwood, 2012), 27.

[6] Littlefield, Holly. Children of the Indian Boarding Schools. (Minneapolis: Carolrhoda Books, 2001). 13

[7] Stout, Mary. Native American Boarding Schools. (Santa Barbara: Greenwood, 2012), 27.

[8] Olson, James S, and Raymond Wilson. Native Americans in the Twentieth Century. (Provo, Utah: Brigham Young Univ. Press, 1983), 84.

[9] Olson, James S, and Raymond Wilson. Native Americans in the Twentieth Century. (Provo, Utah: Brigham Young Univ. Press, 1983), 84.

[10] Littlefield, Holly. Children of the Indian Boarding Schools. (Minneapolis: Carolrhoda Books, 2001). 15

[11] Stout, Mary. Native American Boarding Schools. (Santa Barbara: Greenwood, 2012), 27.

[12] Littlefield, Holly. Children of the Indian Boarding Schools. (Minneapolis: Carolrhoda Books, 2001). 13

[13] Olson, James S, and Raymond Wilson. Native Americans in the Twentieth Century. (Provo, Utah: Brigham Young Univ. Press, 1983), 84.

[14] Stout, Mary. Native American Boarding Schools. (Santa Barbara: Greenwood, 2012), 27.

[15] Trafzer, Clifford E, Jean A. Keller, and Lorene Sisquoc. Boarding School Blues: Revisiting American Indian Educational Experiences. (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2006).3.

[16] Trafzer, Clifford E, Jean A. Keller, and Lorene Sisquoc. Boarding School Blues: Revisiting American Indian Educational Experiences. (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2006).3.

COLLEGE STUFY SKILL

Considering this case study, individual life is perceived as being multimodal. The reason for this consideration is because whenever one mode is made use for sufficing an individual, there is the provision of a four VARK profile (Van, 2012). This the main reason as to why this method continues to provide a considerable scores as well as a mixture of the other models. For that sake, all those might be having a standpoint with preference with the scores which are defined above the multimodal point (Pecora, 2010). 

In addition to that, the preference which is offered to the depiction in graphs and son on indicates that people make use of these parameters to represent all that that might have been represented through the use of words. Although this mode could have been as the graphical representation, it does not have the capacity of including photographic realities, videos, still pictures, and so on.  In addition to that, the fact is that there is no possibility of using such highlights in conveying information to individuals (Pecora, 2010). This means that whenever meaningful symbols are used to represent are sued to represent amongst diverse parameters, it will be more beneficial to visual presence.

In addition to that, there exist some individuals who are much flexible in communication preference for the sake of switching from one approach to another for the sake of ensuring that they have the right path of working on it (Pecora, 2010). For instance, if there is the need of handling legalities, there is the need of applying their skills so as to demonstrate the kinesthetic preferences of expressing or championing their views (Van, 2012). Although there individual who might be contented with such an input in the preferable modes, the longer the gathering of information takes, the brooder the understanding. In return decision-making as well as can be a better option of breath understanding.

                                    Bibliographies

Pecora, P. J. (2010). Strategic supervision: A brief guide for managing social service organizations. Los Angeles: Sage.

Van, B. D. L. (2012). College study skills: Becoming a strategic learner. Boston, MA: Wadsworth/Cengage Learning.

OLD SCHOOL VS NEW SCHOOL
Considering this information, of the results presented contains essential information which tests the statistical validity of some of the assumptions which ought to be checked through the use of the SPPSS output. With regard to its hypothesis, it consists of all important information which assists in supporting the thesis statement. The reason for that is because there is the possibility of misinterpreting the output or input. Since there is the need of highlighting the differences which exists between the two tests, understanding the functionality in which it is built in.

On the other hand, the appropriateness of the analytical approach used is that there is the need of understanding the all the procedures used before proceeding any further. Therefore, clerical category used cannot not be replaced the letter codes without the general loss of data. Since there is some of the information which assists in retaining the original data, there is the need of merging the test into the precise information given.

With respect to the above consideration, formulating the hypothesis of the data to be collected, the analysis of the information from the sample gathered offers a null hypothesis. In this regard, there is the need of rejecting such a hypothesis because it entails the comparison between the p-value of the significance level as well as rejecting it in case it was to be less the level perceived. Although the theorem doesn’t display the difference which exist between the sample means, the whole population can be invariant or unequal. This is because. Since, the variance cannot be equalized, there is no need of expecting the test to be much more different in the final output.

EduCap Company

Four Methodological Approaches

Content Analysis

Content analysis can best be described as the study of human communication.  Some of the suitable forms  of  study  includes  web pages,  books, newspaper, paintings,  songs,  letters, internet, laws, constitution,  bullet boards  and  more (Cengage 356).  The  methodology  has mainly  been utilized  by  feminist researchers   to  make  accurate studies  of  fairy  tales, children books, fashion,  sociological introduction, the publication  of research  and  so much  more.  In particular  content  analysis methodology  is  highly suited  in  generating  studies that relates  to communication  as a quest  of  answering  communication research  classic questions (Cengage 356). This is  aimed  at establishing  the  individuals  that stated something , to whom, the rationale , how the statement  was  made  and its general  impact.  The analytical methods address the issues that surround science research subjects.  Coding  and sampling  as  major  roles  that are required  in content analysis since the population  study is  normally  big  and  information  has to be changed  from  raw to a reliable report (Cengage 362).

Content analysis is characterized by both strengths as well as weaknesses.  The  major weakness  with  content  analysis is that  it  is mainly  limited  to the  general examination  of  information  or communication  that  is recorded (Cengage 363).  Such forms of communication can be categorized as graphical, written or oral but the methodology requires a form of recording so that analysis can be done.  This therefore,  presents an additional  issues  of  validity  which are  highly  likely unless the  communication study  is  conducted  after  every second.  However, the methods   holds  its own strengths which  may include  being  effective in  terms  of  cost as well as time since it   does not require  expertise’s  and the equipments that are  necessary  are  not special.  In addition the method permits errors correction and also allows the study of procedures that occurs from time to time (Cengage 365).

Existing Statistics Analysis

In  more  frequent ways  one  is required  to  undertake  the inquiry  of  social science via the utilization of quasi or official  statistics (Cengage 368).  The  methodology  is  crucial since the existing  statistics  should at  all times  be accounted  as  supplemental  data sources (Cengage 368). The  methodology  of existing statistics  is  utilized  in  offering  the primary  social  science  data inquiry.  The analysis  unit that  is  mainly  engaged  in the  general analysis  of statistics that are  in existence  is not  the  individual  in  most  cases (Cengage 370).

The existing statistics  methodology  presents the  primary  issue  of  validity  because the  research is  particularly  limited  to the existence of  data.  In most  cases  the  existing information  does not  normally  contain  or cover  everything  that  the  researcher  is  highly interested  in  which  means that  the  general  measurements  cannot  account  for  validity (Cengage 372).  The issue of  validity  is  handled  with  two  distinct  features of science  which are  replication  as well as  logical  reasoning.  In addition, the methodology presents  an  addition  issue  of  reliability  since  the existing  statistics evaluation  depends heavily  of statistics  quality.  This implies  that  what  is claimed in the  particular reports  might not be  accurately reported which presents a substantial  issue  since  government  statistics weighty  tables  for instance  are in most  cases  inaccurate.  This may therefore, hinder the general ability of the study to acquire data that is grounded from different perspective to increase its general reliability (Cengage 372).

Comparative and Historical Research

Historical  and comparative  research method  refers  to the general examination  of  societies  over  a time  period  which is  compared  to  a different one.  This differs significantly   from other methods but in a way it overlaps with content analysis and existing research and field research analysis (Cengage 375).  The  kind of  research normally  engages the  utilization  of historical  methodologies  normally  by  political scientists,  sociologists  as well as  other  scientists socially.  Historical and comparative  research  holds unlimited  sources  of data  since the  reporting  of  the primary interests  may have  been conducted  by researchers  and this report  can offer  grounds  for examination  as well as the general  analysis  in order  to  acquire detailed  research.

 In  most  cases  the  research  will  work  above  the provided  conclusions   by  offering  an examination  of  a degree  of  raw data  that  is essential in the  creation  of a distinct  conclusion.  The  data will  automatically  differ  based  on the  subject that  is  being  studied  but they  offer  an  extensive ground  to investigate (Cengage 378).  The analysis  of both historical and  comparative  data is  usually  done under  the  qualitative  approach  which allows  an extended  investigation for maximum  report  gain.  Reliability and accuracy are a major issue since the protection of data is dependent on the replication.  This implies that in reference to historical study validation must be obtained.  In  that  if the primary  data  that  is being studied  points  towards a similar  direction  in  regard to evidence the  researcher  may  tend to  believe  more in them.  In addition the methodology presents an additionally issue of data sources bias (Cengage 381). In  that  if the  data regarding a certain  subject  are  acquired  from  the  subject  in  particular  this implies that  the ability  to  acquire  information  from  different  perspectives  is not easy.

Ethics and Unobtrusive Measures

The utilization of unobtrusive measures avoids different ethical issues that are related to the various collection techniques.  The  methodology  is  utilized  by  social  scientists  in verification  of  the  given reports. However  the approach  ignores most measures such as  confidentiality  which might be  essential  in different  projects  to ensure that  accuracy  and protection is  given (Cengage 384).  The approach  is different  because  it  permits  researchers to make collection  and  analysis of  data with the  objective  of making discoveries  as well  as  making  a firm support  of  an  individual’s agenda of  even  a preferred  hypothesis.  This approach is more complex than it may seem because it challenges an individual’s moral sensibilities in almost all areas.   The approach applies the principle of honest observation, reporting and analysis to all the approaches. However,  it  raises  the general  subject  of the  violation  of  privacy  to  subjects.

The method is thus characterized by different short comings. The  main  weakness is that the  ability  of establishing the existing  statistics, historical records or even  recorded  communications  that  offers  both  reliable  and  valid information  that  is fully  relevant to the  subject  of study  is hindered.  The  different approaches  however,  which may include  surveys,  field  research  and  experiments  permits  individuals  to  create  data that  is  more  original so that  the  spaces can be filled. The perfect approach can best be achieved via the utilization of different methods that includes the unobtrusive methods. The  utilization  of  various  approaches  in a subject study is  effective in offering  increased  meaning , validity as well as accuracy  to the  findings  at the  particular  moment  when  an agreement is generated. In  addition,  this  can  help in the  growth of an individual’s subject’s  understanding  even  when  they  are not  in  agreement (Cengage 385).

            Work Cited

Cengage. Chapter 11: Unobtrusive research. n.d. Cengage Now. Pp: 355-386. Pdf

External versus internal locus of control

I agree with most concerns discussing on the external versus internal locus of control. Students who have external locus of control tend to have lower GPAs while those with internal locus of control tend to have higher GPAs. Most of the students when faced with problems think that it is not always their fault and do not end up looking out for solutions. This is where most students go wrong since one is not supposed to leave a problem but instead one should focus on coming up with the solutions. I agree that students who have higher internal locus of control are both problem solvers and problem anticipators s well. They are able to tell when a problem is about to happen and able to come up with the solutions towards that problem. We should not let either luck or fate have control over our lives. We are supposed to be the controllers of our lives if we eventually want to succeed. Locus of control is therefore important in determining whether a student will remain successful or not. People with internal locus of control are said to perform better than those with external locus of control. As a student, I ensure I have acquired all the skills in life, not necessarily passing the exams since there is life even after exams. I want to be a strategic student therefore I ensure my locus of control remains external since I want to achieve success. For me to succeed I need to ensure that my locus of control is internal so that I can ask questions and come up with solutions to the problems affecting me throughout my life.

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Deciding On Whether to Live On-Campus or Off-Campus

Introduction

This is the most important question for all the students when they enter the college, should they live on the campus or not. These are the first main steps in their life, and they need to make a decision which will not just give them a feeling of convenience and joy but also some benefit and ability for successful studying. Without any doubt, all the students from the beginning feel a kind of freedom and excitement which can influence their decision. However, it is very important to consider all the variants and after that decide. There are a lot of advantages and disadvantages of both living on-campus and off-campus and to consider numerous questions, like prices, comfort, distance, and so on. It is important to admit that studentship is a very important and memorable period of life, so it is very important to make a right choice.

When students start attending their four-year schools, this is their first time when they live without their families, and they need to make decisions by themselves. This is the time when students need to choose where to stay because there are many schools which allow their students to live outside of the campus. The decision of where to stay may be very hard. Yet, living in the campus is a very popular choice for the first-year students who just start their life at the university. Of course living in the campus has its disadvantages like noise and parties which do not let you concentrate on studying or sleeping, or there are students that need their own space and privacy, and they do not want to share their room with anybody else. In addition, you will always need to wait for empty bathroom or toilet and sometimes it will be really hard to find your place to quietly have rest.

Hypothesis

After the preliminary  research based on previous survey I hypothesized that there are a lot of advantages and disadvantages of both living on-campus and off-campus based on the consideration of  numerous questions, like prices, comfort, distance, and so on.

Methods

The study utilized a review of previous research surveys and asking of question to some respondents.  However, responses were conducted to few students based on the time frame.  Based on the survey 70 percent of the students felt that it was more comfortable and beneficial to live inside the campus based on the convenience.  30 percent however, stated that the scarcity of resources makes it hard to opt to live on campus thus opting to enjoy the comfort ability of their homes.

Discussion

I know the example when one of my friends, who was studying at university and living on the campus, and every morning she was supposed to get up one hour earlier than she should wake up. The reason is that there was just one shower on her floor and in order to avoid the queues she was getting up earlier. Furthermore, need to think about prices for living in the residence. The prices may vary and depend on which university you want to enter. At times living off-campus can be regarded as a costly venture for parents. For instance, the provision of a room with a compulsory meal schedule and other facilities will add up to more than 12, 000 dollars annually.  However, this  differs with securing a room inside the university  which may  cost  about 9,710 dollars for all seasons and  this  comprises  of  meals  and other  facilities (Dhopade, 2015). Yet, there are much more advantages than disadvantages for living on the campus. For example, if you choose life in the campus you will definitely be in the center of the student's life and will always know all the news. Another thing is that life in the campus guarantees you all sorts of amenities and facilities, everything you need will be easily accessible. What is more, we all know that it is very hard to get up in the morning, so life in the campus gives you a chance to get up a bit later and go to the classes on time avoiding all traffic jams and problems with parking. Also, we need to include here meals: being an inhabitant of the campus, you are able to have dining services. In addition, students always have free access to the Internet/Wi-Fi.

Without any doubt, campus gives an opportunity to save the money while living there because living outside of the campus can make you spend much more money. You will need to pay for rent, electricity, cable/the internet and so on. The very important thing is that life in the campus trains your responsibility. Being a student that lives far from his family makes you learn a lot of things, like taking care of your stuff, money, etc. You are no more a child that needs the parent's assistance. You learn how to do everything on time, what to buy or not to buy, even how to make your bed very fast in the morning. One more advantage of living on the campus is that you are never alone. You have a lot of friends and classmates beside that in a difficult situation will help you. Numerous fellow undergraduates can give you a piece of advice anytime. Student’s life in the campus is a great way to find new people and start a friendship. There will always be somebody with whom you can eat your lunch or discuss the last events. Moreover, friendship with other classes can help you sometimes to do homework better because they can give a piece of advice on your subject which can definitely save you some time spent in the library.

Review of Past Research

Here, I want to represent the statistics of benefits of on-campus living by measuring it quantitatively. The statistics was taken from the Kent State University. For instance, the incoming first year average GPA for the first three semesters statistics has shown that in 2012 the number of freshmen that were living on campus for the first semester was 2.94 and the number of the off-campus students was 2.70. For the second semester, the number of on-campus students was 2.91 and for off campus students were 2.68. As for the third semester, the number of students who were living on campus was 2.91 again and the number of students who were living off campus was 2.71. In 2013, the number of freshmen’s that were living on campus for the first semester was 3.01 and the number of the off campus students was 2.84. For the second semester, the number of on-campus students was 2.89 and for off campus students it was 2.67. As for the third semester, the number of students who were living on campus was 2.95 again and the number of students who were living off campus was 2.80. In 2014, the number of freshmen’s that were living on campus for the first semester was 2.99 and the number of the off campus students was 2.77 (Kent State University, 2017). The statistics on the incoming first year persistence to the next three semesters has shown that in 2012, the percentage of freshmen’s that were living on campus for the first semester was 93% and freshmen’s that were living off campus was 90%. For the second semester, the percentage of on campus students was 78% and off campus students - 74%. For the third semester, the percentage of on campus students was 76%, off campus students - 69%. In 2013, the percentage of on campus students for the first semester was 94%, percentage of the off campus students - 92%. For the second semester, the percentage of on campus students was 82%, the percentage of the off campus students was 80%. As for the third semester, the percentage of on campus students was 79%, off campus students - 75%. In 2014, the percentage of the first semester on-campus students was 95%, off campus students - 92% (Kent State University, 2017). 

The primary responsibilities of the residence hall staff is to provide students with the valuable information, promote security and safety, create a positive community through the educational programs, provide high quality living, and support students whenever they have questions or require assistance. On top of all, most universities provide its students that live in the residence halls with transportation, including the campus bus routes and transportation of students with disabilities. Also, each campus offers its residents a variety of leadership opportunities within the campus. The employment opportunities for students can include desk receptionist position, security aide, or resident assistant. Moreover, all students have the opportunity to gain the leadership skills. As we can see, there are numerous opportunities for all the students if they choose to live on campus life. My personal opinion also is that students living on campus and having all the opportunities and benefits of student’s life are happier and more successful in the future. In fact, from the beginning a lot of students are afraid of changings, of their future, and they do not know anybody at university. Some students comment while laughing that at first, they need to get used to take shower in the flip-flops and share your own private space with somebody. Yet the situation changes later. Most of the students claim that they are more comfortable and happy living on campus. Here are some examples. For the question what is your favorite thing living in the dorms, students answer that: “The people. A four-year housing system is definitely nice, as that way you have upperclassmen to ask advice, to help you on those tough problems or just to socialize with”.

—Dominik, college sophomore

“I can safely say that dorm life is by far the most rewarding part of college outside the classroom. … Living under the same roof with so many different types of people truly allows an individual to see the world with a whole new perspective”.

—Justin, college freshman (Big Future, 2017).

Results

It is proved also by statistics that individuals living inside campus hold more improved grades than those who live off campus. There are numbers of courses at the university, for example, which require group meetings and group projects. Being on campus gives an individual the opportunity to meet with the classmates any time and even late at night and no need to worry about scheduling meetings on weekends.  Sometimes there are also such benefits of living on campus as private fitness centers, lounges with TV’s and pool tables, private laundry facilities, private computer labs with wireless connections and others. While living on campus you can be sure about your privacy and security. There are trained security officers who watch the residence halls for twenty-four hours per day. This is a really great advantage because you do not need to worry about your safety. In general, Residence Services are always aimed at providing the best living environment for students. They offer support and assistance for the students in order they have better educational opportunities. The goal of each Residence Service is to offer residential programs, facilities, and services that would enhance students’ learning and support their success. It goes without saying that living in the campus can bring a lot of benefits not just in the educational area but in the personal as well. While living on campus, students have an opportunity to meet different people and learn about other lifestyles and cultures. They create long-lasting memories and lifelong friendships. Young people learn the concepts of self-respect and how to respect other people. They learn what are tolerance and diversity, personal growth and ethical behavior. There are numerous social programs which stimulate students for self-development. What is more, the students always have an opportunity to interact with the faculties of the university outside their classrooms. They can participate in a variety of residence hall and campus-wide programs.

Conclusion

When you need to decide where to live there are always the existing options s to live within or off campus and each choose has its benefits and disadvantages. Each variant has its own minuses and pluses. In fact, everything finally comes down to the personal preferences and needs. Sometimes, it is better to write down your own list of pluses and minuses. Nevertheless, my opinion is that it is better to live on the campus because it gives a lot of opportunities and an unforgettable experience. I would definitely choose to live on campus. It is necessary to mention also that student’s life is that time in the life which you cannot avoid or waist just for twenty-four hours studying. It is very important to use all the opportunities while studying at university and meet as much new friends as possible. Student’s life is a great memory which will be forever in your mind. In any way, if you choose wrong, you will be able to change your place of living, and it is important to remember that despite the place you are living in, it is necessary to stay positive and friendly. Just being friendly and respectful you can live anywhere happily.

            References

Big Future. (2017). Students Speak: What Life in the Dorms Is Really Like. Retrieved from https://bigfuture.collegeboard.org/find-colleges/campus-life/students-speak-what-life-in-the-dorms-is-really-like

Dhopade, P. (2015). On-Campus Vs. Off-Campus Housing. Meal plans are mandatory when living on residence. Retrieved from www.moneysense.com

Kent State University. (2017). Benefits Of Living On Campus. Retrieved from http://www.kent.edu/housing/benefits-living-campus