PUBH 6640: Applied Project in Public Health

Program Outcomes Mapping Form

For MSHEP Students

Student Name:......... __________________________________________________________

Walden Instructor: __________________________________________________

Preceptor Information (if applicable)

            Name:________________________________________________________

            Organization/Agency: __________________________________

Applied Project

Title:

How Overdose Prevention Methods Affect Patients in the Long-Term

Project Purpose:

The research paper is aimed at gaining a depth insight into how death by overdose prevention methods affects patients long-term, in order to reduce harm.

Project Significance:

The issue of substance abuse is currently on the rise and it has become a critical public health issue. The research will be useful in bridging the existing gap in regard to literature review on the overdose prevention methods. Most of the existing research is mainly based on the substance abuse rather than the prevention method and the effectiveness. This research will form grounds and recommendations for further research in the near future in order to increase knowledge.

Brief Description of Evaluation Methods:

This research will utilize Secondary Analysis of Archived Data (SAAD) as the evaluation method. Secondary analysis of all the archived data is the utilization of the prevailing data that is collected for the objective of a prior study so that the research interest can be pursued which is different from the original research. This evaluation method has not been utilized widely in connection to qualitative information and thus it will be useful in the review of the existing data in regard to substance overdose prevention methods on long-term effects on patients. Since this research was no part of the previous studies that will be reviewed there will be consideration of the involved ethical and methodological issues in order to increase the associated.

Introduction

Psychiatric research has indicated the various best practices aimed at elimination or reduction of restrain in mental health facilities. These practices which can lead to a reduction in application of restrain   comprises of a regulatory policy which supports the de-escalation of restraint. Practices based on such a policy offers a direction on the role of organizational leadership in ensuring that nurses interactions with violent patients does not bring about excessive use of seclusion and restraint in psychiatric facilities.

Problem statement

There are various reports available on patients’ death inside the restraint cells and this call for ways to minimize or eliminate completely the use of this technique. The psychiatric community has established over recent years that there are negative impacts associated with the use of restraint on patients with psychiatric problems. The results of the research have shown that using restraint as a technique for intervention so as to control patients’ behavior can lead to unfavorable outcomes (Bowers, James, Quirk, Simpson, Stewart, & Hodsoll, 2015). It may lead to great harm to patients themselves, nurses and the general staff if not done in the appropriate way. The patients can experience trauma or eventually face the risk of death. Research done on this topic should be focused on evidence based nursing practices which can reduce the use of coercive restrain tactic in handling these patients.

This issue is very important to nursing professional since they are mandated with managing psychiatric patients and in various cases they take up the management of the mental health facilities. While deciding on the best nursing interventions which are evidence based, they can take into account methods that are evidence-based so that to reduce the use of restraint and seclusion for on these patients. Presently, the application of seclusion or restraint is aimed at pinning down patients with mental problems if they become unruly or uncontrollable before they are cooled down by communicating to them. It is necessary that nurses use their efforts in restraining patients through techniques that can bring success in reducing the use of restraint.  The various intervention techniques that can bring about changes relates to regulatory support. Methods that can provide assistance to staff in these facilities can go a long way in minimizing restraint and seclusion (Sivakumaran, George & Pfukwa, 2011).  The issue is also important to the nursing leadership in mental hospitals under regulatory agency supervision, where nurses are encouraged to embrace behavior which enhances changes in the organizational culture. The psychiatric nursing community can impact on the use of the right intervention methods, through advocating for implementation of changes that can reduce the use of restraint (Donat, 2003).  This is possible for nursing leaders who have shown the willingness to co-operate in the management of aggressive behavior.  Through the introduction of changes in the practice systems, priority is placed on minimizing the use of restraint by providing nurses with the necessary resources which will make it possible to achieve this goal.

Purpose of the research

This research aims at establishing the various interventions that can lead to reduction of restraint application. It aims at coming with grouping s of these interventions and picking the appropriate one which can be adopted in the nursing practice.

Research questions

How effective is restraint in dealing with psychiatric patients?

What are effects of using restraint on patients?

Which interventions can alternatively be used for psychiatric patients?

References

Donat D (2003), ‘An analysis of successful efforts to reduce the use of seclusion and restraint at

a public psychiatric hospital’, in Psychiatric Services, 54, 1119-1123.

Bowers, L., James, K., Quirk, A., Simpson, A., Stewart, D., & Hodsoll, J. (2015). Reducing

conflict and containment rates on acute psychiatric wards: The Safewards cluster randomized

controlled trial. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 521412-1422.

doi:10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2015.05.001

Sivakumaran, H., George, K., & Pfukwa, K. (2011). Reducing restraint and seclusion in an acute aged person's mental health unit. Australasian Psychiatry, 19(6), 498-501. doi:10.3109/10398562.2011.603326

NETWORKS AND ALLIANCES IN BIOTECHNOLOGY

Introduction

    Biotechnology is the process of using living cells, which include yeast, algae and much more to generate industrial products. This process also uses components of the cell such as enzymes. Industrial biotechnology, therefore, has a broad range of uses. The biotechnology industry, therefore, is all practices that use a biological approach to developing a product in need (Ranada, 2003, p10).  Since 1953 when the DNA was discovered and later the realization of DNA as genetic matter in the lifecycle, there has been remarkable progress in the whole biotechnology field (Sytch, and Bubenzer, 2008, p120). Biotechnology has a broad application such as nutrition alterations, genetic study and replicating, human and animal well-being, medicines and the surrounding. This paper will explore the biotechnology industry and the various subsectors within this industry and the latent sources of external financial support for biotechnology startups. The paper will also discuss the reasons behind the collaboration between the biotechnology firms with external partners for innovation and the strategies involved in choosing these external partners.

Biotechnology Industry

            Biotechnology in simple terms, it can be defined as expertise based on biology. It connects bimolecular progressions to build up products that can aid to advance our lives. It involves the utilization of systems in light of living frameworks—plants, creatures, or microorganisms, for making the product. Biotech is an advantageous interaction of science/science and innovation/designing. It has influenced the entire parts of human life. It has rearranged enterprises, definitely changed medicinal services, improved nature, and encouraged to the fundamental transformation in-laws and ethical standards. Human beings have used the biology of microorganisms for a long time to make products that they use for many different purposes.  The present day biotech industry has made expensive, exceptionally gainful modern outlets of awesome esteem to society, for example, aging, sustenance businesses; the alteration of plants, microorganisms, what's more, cultivated creatures for enhanced nourishment generation; enhanced plant and creature rearing; and natural remediation and security.

Sub Sectors

Agriculture: Agricultural biotechnology is one of the significant parts of the biotechnology industry. Horticulture is the areas which people require every day because of the creation of nourishment which is required sustenance forever. Biotechnology enhances sustenance quality and generation and also the modernization of plants, creatures, and microorganisms. Due to science progression, look into by USDA has demonstrated rural practices are among significant recipients of biotechnology around the world. USDA has bolstered the utilization of biotechnology to address the issue for the ranch items. The control is made to guarantee that items have just beneficial outcomes on human and creature wellbeing. Wellbeing measures are taken which incorporate security of pesticides on homesteads, sustain devoured by creatures and people. The driving exporter of agrarian items is the United States (Ranade, 2008 pg 7).

Pharmaceutical: Biopharmaceuticals mind boggling natural particles which alluded to as proteins. They go for checking hidden systems in ailment treatment. Pharmaceutical Biotechnology businesses have a general utilization of the recombinant DNA innovation to concoct new and more productive medications. Recombinant DNA innovation includes alteration of cells' hereditary qualities to make the coveted biotechnological items field. The pharmaceutical plans depend on organizing atoms in a way that they will be more dynamic drugs.  The unpredictable particles made all the while, are normally expensive subsequently, and are taken by the patients by infusion and not the oral solution. The ordinary pharmaceutical biotechnology items incorporate Antibodies and Proteins.

Environment: Biotechnology likewise has an awesome part in an environment like in water treatment and reusing of materials. Nature has been corrupting at a high rate thus requiring the utilization of the best techniques to check contamination. With the synchronous increment in innovation, our surroundings have imperiled, and the general wellbeing has turned into a significant concern around the world. The real wellsprings of contamination are ventures and also farms.  Bioremediation is a procedure of utilizing microorganisms to frustrate the natural contaminations utilizing organisms.

Sources of External Funds

Angel Investors: They fund both private and public firms. Because of their high experience, they exceptionally suggested as a capital hotspot for organizations (Schilling, 2013, np). When you wander, the Angel Investors should gain a little control of the firm share. It may be a justifiable reason motivation behind why they are an authentic source as they are a piece of the business (Whitehead, 2003 pg 242).

Bank Loans: They are normally the fundamental wellspring of the capital in most of the organizations. It is simpler to get bank credit paying little heed to the span of the firm. A similar way, one can get enough income for the Biotechnology Company. The financial specialist should too know about the enthusiasm accumulating amid the reimbursement period (Whitehead, 2003 pg 245).

Government: The government is such a great amount of worried with the improvement of its general public and environs. Capabilities for the government grants rely on upon the measure of capital that a firm is in need. There are gifts accessible for various classifications of organizations which thus manage the sum the government will give the one (Maxim Sytch, 2008 pg 106).

Collaboration with External

    A few organizations, for the most part, the babies in the business, may ensure an absence of assets to bolster innovative work of medication amid innovative work organize there is no pay to the organization. It is likewise questionable to decide the plausible profit of the biotechnology organizations in contrast with organizations as of now offering their items. The new organizations need to team up with other associations to have the capacity to create contending and all around investigated items. The vast majority of the teammates are more prepared and willing to bolster inquire about for medications than antibodies since the previous utilize persistent while the last utilized now and again or only one time. Different organizations like to have numerous items in the improvement arrange and subsequently requiring a great deal of cash. Such move helps the organization in that if a portion of the items not endorsed in the market, the foundation will recuperate its cash from different items that were under research (Schilling, 2013 pg 9).

Choosing of innovation partners by biotechnology firms

    With the current globalization in the business environment, industries are no longer increasing innovations in a vacuum but they are rather working with partners across the world so as to develop innovative strategies as well as products. This strategic partnership has also been implemented in the biotechnology firms with a goal of gaining a grip in the current high-cost and high-risk firms. Choosing process of the strategic partnership is quite essential in the biotechnological firms since the industry requires an accessible knowledge, civil resources as well as authenticity. Therefore, in the selection process in the biotechnological industry, the firm is required to first carry out an identification process. This process involves the identification of the alliance or strategic partners who are resourceful and knowledgeable and who can readily offer knowledge bequest, resources as well as better-quality authenticity benefits into the industry thus bringing about success f the entire industry.  The industry also identifies potential partners through calculative motives analysis where they are able to come up with a subset of only those biotechnology firms that the company needs to choose from. Basically, most of these firms share a common similarity which enhances mutual trust building and co-recognition and this increases their chances of partnering. Some of the biotech firms tend to choose their partners based on the shared identity as the founders of these firms graduated from the same organization (Schilling 2013 pg 7). In simple terms, partnerships of the biotechnology firms involve a contractual agreement under which the biotechnology firm carries out specified research funded by the established firm and licenses the guarantor to develop, produce and market products that integrate the research results in return for a royalty on the net goods sale. The partnership is established between two biotechnology firms that contribute to its research results and is capable of financing and providing for resources in manufacturing, distribution and in the marketing of the innovated product. This allows for a strong partnership and hence more innovation of products in the biotechnology firm. Research alliances are therefore a source of many innovative ideas in the biotechnology industry. The strength of this partnership relies on the ability of the collaborating industries to solve scientific, technical problems as well as ability to resolve leadership and organizational challenges. Thus there is an increasing trend in the direction of non-exclusive agreements wherein biotechnology firms retains the right of co-promotion as well as co-marketing (Ranade 2008 pg 22).

Conclusion

    In conclusion, biotechnology has a promising future. In the future, biotechnology will be recognized for some revolutionary technology. In the near future, biotechnology is predicted to have a significant in the economy since it is a big tool to solving some major global complications such as fatal disease, global epidemics, and the uncontrolled rise of petroleum fuel crisis, global warming and most importantly, poverty. Despite all the positive effects resulting from biotechnology, some side effects may come with it. Ecological hazards that could come with biochemical innovation that could be caused by transgenic organisms are unknown. Some people have argued that some of the transgenic organisms could be used to develop lethal bioweapons. Therefore, this poses a great danger in the event that these transgenic organisms fall into the wrong hands and be used for massive destruction. The antagonists of biotechnology science argue that the science is still very young and that it needs more research before it is fully perfected. The track from a test tube to the field is not a straightforward walkthrough. Both financial and intellectual resources need to be comprehended and taken into much consideration before new innovations make their way into industrial applications. Despite all implications that come along with biotechnology, the science has proved to be extremely productive and therefore, recent times should be time for biotechnology innovation. Collaboration between biotechnology firms and external alliances has proven to be the current trend in this industry due to the globalization. However, there has been an increase in innovation due to the sharing of high costs and the high risk associated with innovation.

References

Maxim Sytch, P. B., 2008. Research on Strategic Alliances in Biotechnology: An Assessment and Review. Springer, New York: Handbook of Bioentrepreneurship.

Ranade, V., 2008. Early-stage valuation in the biotechnology industry.

Available at: https://fsi.stanford.edu/sites/default/files/Ranade_FINAL_Feb_2008.pdf

Schilling, M. A., 2013. Strategic management of technological innovation. 4 ed. New York: Tata McGraw-Hill Education.

Whitehead, G., 2003. Early stage and seed financing for biotechnology start-ups: A UK perspective. Journal of Commercial Biotechnology, 9(3).

Demand for health care services

The demand for health care services is continually getting tossed by the effects of certain factors such as health status, health insurance policies incomes and prices among other factors. The need to understand how these factors affect the demand for healthcare services is getting essential and a timely topic. Healthcare centers have now opted to adopt cost-containment strategies after their effectiveness in the private sector was proven (Lieberthal, 2016). This implies that every strategy comes along with changes in the healthcare services. As a result, these changes affect the accessibility of health care services, the intensity use of the services and the associated costs. The goal of this informative workshop is to provide a summarized research on how different policies affect the demand for healthcare services as well as the associated costs (Lieberthal, 2016).

Most healthcare centers tend to employ the cost-benefit analysis (CBA) approach while weighing the strengths and weaknesses of a health policy. CBA is a systematic approach that is used to serve two main purposes: determination of the soundness of a decision and also provides a basis of project comparison (Lieberthal, 2016). CBA uses a number of techniques such as stated preference and revealed preference techniques in order to estimate the compensations and the benefits that are associated with a policy. Stated preference technique is basically a direct evaluation of willingness to pay the premiums while revealed preference technique is an indirect approach (Herzlinger, 2007).

Fixed and variable costs are the COGS composition. They have a very large impact of the gross profit such that an increase in expense directly implies a lower gross profit which is the direct measure of profitability of a company (Herzlinger, 2007). Most healthcare institutions have preferred to work with the variable costs and put the fixed expenses in the category of overhead costs. This is realistic and recommendable approach whereby only the costs that are affecting the production are included. This may include medication, foods and other supplies that vary on daily basis.

In a healthcare industry, various methods and tools are employed identify, evaluate and solve financial challenges. Some of the methods include cost analysis, economic evaluation, budget analysis, health impact assessment and decision and transmission modeling. Each of them serves a specific role in the financial sector. In addition, tools such as MEPS, HIVnet, and HCUP are used to provide important and timely information on the cost of the services, how they are paid for and nature of the population (Herzlinger, 2007). These tools are commonly employed by health insurance companies which seek to understand the financial status of the health industry.

In the United States, there is a constant rising of health care costs on long-term basis. Health insurance companies have come in response to the varying needs and preferences of citizens in the sector of health (Herman & Wiley InterScience (Online service). 2010). They are taking part in health cost management in a number of ways. First, they introduce managed care practices which involve the elimination of some health care inceptives between the patients and providers which create unnecessary health care demand. They are also adopting methods that ensure patients get high quality services that are also cost effective.

Healthcare reimbursement and billing process is a system from which service providers get paid of the health care services. During the reimbursement, patients are required to pay healthcare providers. Patients who are covered for insurance are taken care freely. Changes in rules that govern the healthcare reimbursement often affect the providers, the payer or the insurance company. Limitations such as claim credit eliminate all the vaccination administration payments on the favor of the payer (Lieberthal, 2016). The complexity of determining the party which is responsible for healthcare reimbursement and billing also affects either of the parties.

These are a lot of changes in the health service of diabetic patients which have been implemented to improve the diabetes care. Most of them are made and implemented under the affordable care act. They include health care and finance reform whereby policy makers are advocating for reduction in the care provision for diabetic patients. Substantive changes and introduction of preventive interventions are the other major changes. All these changes are geared towards improving the healthcare coverage, promoting affordability and quality care (Herman & Wiley InterScience (Online service). 2010).

Based on how the 21^st century is driven by innovation, diabetes medical care has improved in a number of ways. This includes selection of insulin that is not based on the patient, family or the costs, flexibility of the schedule whereby local diabetes treatment centers have been increased in numbers. More accurate monitors of the glucose levels has been cherished which includes CSII and CGM. Self management and support has also been taught to most diabetic patients so as to reduce the costs and the impacts of medical care (Herman & Wiley InterScience (Online service). 2010).

Preventive measures for diabetes have brought many benefits to the diabetes population. First, it has help in reduction of the overall expenses for health services, it has lead people to embrace health lifestyles and practices and prevention of postpone sufferings. Families and communities have also been saved from the burden of diabetes care (Herman & Wiley InterScience (Online service). 2010).

Drivers of healthcare reform are basically the motivators towards reformation in health care services. They include strategic goals meant to create an exceptional patient experience, information technology and its benefits, robust infrastructure and collaboration and governance of the healthcare services among others (Torinus, 2010). Barriers include the changing economics of U.S. and global healthcare, lack of funding to adva1nced services, poor management and inadequate professional skills in handling complicated matters of healthcare services (Torinus, 2010).

The government is usually charged to regulate the health markets, support the education system and acquisition of knowledge, ensuring access to healthcare facilities and ensuring proper healthcare to the vulnerable populations in the country Herman & Wiley InterScience (Online service). 2010). The government is also responsible in supporting and advancing the interests of the society such as quality care delivery.

There are about 10 million Americans who are not covered by a health insurance (Torinus, 2010). This is because of some problems which include lack of affordability of insurance services; some chronic diseases such as cancer are very expensive to treat and hence insurers fear to provide care to such. Some of them show their unwillingness to get covered and hence forced to choose the aggressive options. Lastly, the unraveling of market insurance to patients with heart and cancer diseases also remains to be a challenge in covering people with insurance care (Torinus, 2010).

References

Top of Form

Herzlinger, R. E. (2007). Who killed health care?: America's $2 trillion medical problem--and the consumer-driven cure. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Top of Form

Herman, W. H., & Wiley InterScience (Online service). (2010). The evidence base for diabetes care. Chichester, West Sussex: J. Wiley.

Bottom of Form

Top of Form

Lieberthal, R. D. (2016). What Is Health Insurance (Good) For?: An Examination of Who Gets It, Who Pays for It, and How to Improve It.

Bottom of Form

Top of Form

Torinus, J. (2010). The company that solved health care: How Serigraph dramatically reduced skyrocketing costs while providing better care, and how every company can do the same. Dallas, Texas: BenBella Books.

Bottom of Form

Bottom of Form

Improving quality in HealthCare

The hospital facility safety is an alarming issue which is continually putting patients at risk. A number of cases were reported in 2015 whereby hospitals fail to ensure cleaning of the sewage channels, sterilization of the treatment equipment and poor maintenance of hospital facilities (Skochelak et al, 2016). Some often compromise an infection control risk assessment which is essential in ensuring safety within the healthcare centers. This makes the patients more vulnerable to infections other than those which hospitalized them.

In order to uphold hospital facility safety, healthcare centers should employ the best strategies that support the efforts. The most recommendable strategy nevertheless is the re-evaluation of the maintenance protocols. This is a strategy that ensures that old facilities are replaced, sterilization of hospital equipment, and ventilation in rooms are re-evaluated for improvement. It also includes an infection control risk assessment which should be regularly done to ensure safety in the hospital (Skochelak et al, 2016).

Healthy Decision Making

Reflecting back on my life health decision was influenced by my values and attitudes. They played a significant role as it helped me accept and adopt healthy eating lifestyle. This has been helpful as it has helped to minimize the risk associated with poor eating habits. These individual factors have led to an increasing independence thus strengthening my factors. Great support came from the family members who were acting as reminder agents as they constantly reminded me of the way of healthy eating. Family as a major influence they engaged in healthy eating promoting a healthy lifestyle behavior that I constantly practice. However, there were challenges as some of my peers were tempting me to go their way of the tasty fast foods that they are fond of.

Heart disease, cancer, and tuberculosis are strongly related to behavior. Despite that there is other factors that cause them a significant portion is caused by the different lifestyles adopted in eating. The changes experienced between 1990 and 2010 in the top ten cause of death can be explained as a result of increasing changes witnessed in poor eating and the change in behavior (Brehm-Curtis, 2014). The reduction of deaths can be associated with the increasing awareness of the people to adopt healthy eating by outline the dangers of unhealthy eating (Brehm-Curtis, 2014).  Social and cultural behavior have a great impact on health as there is shared values, attitudes, traditions and beliefs that affect how people adopt their living lifestyle. This creates a perception of the people of how they should practice healthy eating. It is true to say that social pressure creates an idealized image of what health is which may lead to the adoption of positive health decisions.

Reference

Brehm-Curtis, B. (2014). Psychology of health and fitness: Applications for behavior change. Philadelphia : F.A. Davis Company

Health Informatics in Public Health

This was an applied project that addressed how the overdose prevention methods affected patients in long-term basis. It would be accomplished by full utilization of the prevention methods across different communities and study methods. By the end of 2020, the study aims to have made every implementation of the plans for the purpose of establishing legal policies, strategies and measures that would be used in overdose prevention (In Magnuson & In Fu, 2014). The project relied much in Secondary Analysis of Archived Data as the main evaluation method. Secondary sources were explicitly reviewed in order to supply the research with every relevant material. In this regard, health informatics were obtained and appropriately applied in the project in various aspects.

First¸ the informatics were essentially used in the initialization phase of the project. They were the key in the identification of the project’s requirement as well as the setting of the intended objectives. Informatics provided with the existing health figures from which were able to define and approach the problem (In Magnuson & In Fu, 2014). The health informatics was also useful in the planning process. It helped in the identification of the specific tasks and the overall workflow of the project.

While planning was being conducted, potential challenges were identified prior to the research project. The informatics also facilitated the understanding of the research overall scope of the research so as to remain within the limits of the research focus. Informatics are also used I the closing phase which focuses on solving the post project issues such as argumentative conversations among health professionals (In Magnuson & In Fu, 2014). During this period, new requests are adopted and implemented in the healthcare centers during the implementation process. Health informatics finds their place in the optimization necessities that tend to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of patient care.

During the execution of the project, intervention activities shall be guided by the health informatics. It will minimize wastage of time and resources while at the same time maximizing the adoption of new workflows. During the monitoring and follow-up activities, informatics is essential in facilitating startling problems in the follow-up sessions. This will help in improving efficiency of the implementation progress.

From the readings, principles of program design have been plainly covered. Health records for both global and local populations have been successfully been monitored and improved. This sector requires the combination of both the managerial skills in the healthcare department as well as the unique skills found in a health informaticist.

The results were useful in the healthcare field such that they formed fertile ground from which recommendations would be implemented. The results also enticed further researches in order to increase the current knowledge of overdose prevention methods. The choice of secondary sources was also made successfully with all of the chosen articles being credible (In Magnuson & In Fu, 2014). Health informatics in this regard was an important tool in the initializing and planning purposes. On the same project, the use of IT system would be my area of concern since it would have helped in the manipulation of electronic health records. This would in turn improve efficiency, save cost and provide a better platform for the improvement of the results. Future projects need to utilize the cutting-edge technologies in order to do the purposed intensive and extensive researches on the matter of overdose prevention. In this manner, health informatics can be best reviewed and applied into the current health demands (In Magnuson & In Fu, 2014).  

References

Top of Form

In Magnuson, J. A., & In Fu, P. C. (2014). Public health informatics and information systems.

Bottom of Form

Using data in public health

Explain how data and research have informed your practicum experience

Research data has formed an essential part in since it has informed my experience in combining information in advancing various developments in the public health. My practical experience has largely involved sharing of such data among the various public health practitioners for the purpose of public good. Obtaining and sharing information on health plays a major role in obtaining practical experience.

Include something you learned from the literature that surprised you, or share an experience that supports what you read in the literature

The size of data available and also the shortage of information from such data which can be used in enhancing public health is a paradox which leaves the concerned institutions in a paradox and even frustrates the health officials (Coleman &Delea, 2013). One would assume that with the extent of current research, the public health field has sufficient and well researched information to be used by federal, state and local health officials.

How is data security implemented at your agency?

At the agency, there are continuous regular checks and education and even balances which assist in safeguarding important information from any breaches. Various policies are also put in place to ensure that any security messages passed in the department or shifts are protected against such breaches that come inform of loss or theft. The policies also play a vital role in ensuring that there is minimal incident of insider abuse of the sensitive information.

Is there a Security Awareness Training Data Use Agreement or Health Data Security Program at your agency? If so, provide a brief description of the program.

The available program for security awareness involves educating all employees on the aforementioned set policies and relevant procedures for using information technology. There is regular training on the use and safety of such information, since some employees are on contract or temporary.  

If there is not training provided, explain the benefits of the agency implementing one in the future.

The kind of training offered to the employees at the agency is not sufficient in that it does not cover the overall threat. The training program should be extended to informing employees on who they should contact if they notice any threat. That way they can personally take responsibility of information they are handling.

References

Coleman, E. W., &Delea, K. C. (2013). The use of public health informatics to improve environmental health practice. Journal of Environmental Health, 76(5), 44–45.

Mental Illness Response

The New York Times video has addressed to difficulties that come along with mental illness treatment. This has widened my knowledge about the illness as it requires commitment in order to treat it effectively. Unlike other illness an individual is capable of hiding what they are suffering from. The healing process further proves to be difficult as it deals medication, psychotherapy, support group, peer support and hospitalization when the case is extreme. The healing process shows that a lot has to be put together in order including family and friends who are supposed to accept the patient in order for them to heal completely (Berghuis, & Jongsma, 2010).

Like Stacy, she was able to hide it from her family yet she did not know what she was suffering from until she was 18 years. She was afraid of stigma as she was dealing with depression. She was scared what her family and friend who say about her. This proves that people are afraid of the mentally ill patient as most people assume that they are likely to be mad and they can harm other individuals (Compton, Shim, & American Psychiatric Publishing, 2015). The patients are also afraid of letting their friends know what they are suffering from as they may lose them as a result of social stigma. Mental illness affects the patient activities as they are forced to drop from activities that they were active in. Individuals with mental illness especially students are forced to drop out of school in order to tackle the illness. Their academic performance is also affected making them deteriorate in their studies. Discrimination is real to the people with mental illness which negatively affect their lives. They become isolated in which their lives are destroyed (Gilmartin, 2009).

Reference

Berghuis, D. J., & Jongsma, A. E. (2010). The severe and persistent mental illness treatment planner. Hoboken, N.J: John Wiley & Sons.

Gilmartin, J. (2009). Health psychology in context. Chichester, U.K: Wiley-Blackwell.

In Compton, M. T., In Shim, R. S., & American Psychiatric Publishing,. (2015). The social determinants of mental health.

SB 1076

Title: General Acute Care Hospitals: Observation Services

Overview of the health problem

Patients in California suffered resulting to demonstrations from nurses and patients since patients placed under observation were discriminated and not treated well compared to other patients from other units (Lake & Booker, 2005). This discrimination led to introduction of SB 1076 which would solve this problem by clearly defining the observation services. SB 1076 clearly defines observation services since they have been neglected by many hospitals because patients put under investigation do not receive the necessary care and attention compared to outpatient and admitted patients (Barr, 2016). The bill suggests that observation services are outpatient services provided by the acute care hospitals to patients who got unstable conditions or rather serious conditions that warrant them to be placed under observation by nurses and doctors. However the conditions are rather not very serious to place the patients under admission hence they only need to be observed by doctors and nurses to judge whether an admission will be necessary incase the conditions fails to stabilize. The bill requires that patients placed under observation need to be given beds and need regular checkups from nurses and other hospital staffs as well (Barr, 2016). The patients should be given all the necessary care and support so that they feel comfortable and safe before the doctors, judge whether they need admissions or not (Lake  & Booker, 2005). These patients need to get monitored by nurses so that if their condition stabilizes they do not get admitted in the acute care hospitals. Most are the times where such patients do not get observation services.

Overview of the bill and stakeholders

SB1076 is one of the health bills in California which came up in order to reform the health policies in California and other states throughout the US. The bill was introduced in senate on 16^th February 2016, heard on april13th 2016 and will be effective starting from January 1^st 2017 (Barr, 2016). The bill was supported by California nurses association and national nurses united since most of the patients have suffered since many hospitals have been reported to exploit observation status. Most patients are held in hospitals over long periods of time and this limits the numbers of needy patients getting admissions in hospitals. All patients needs to be kept safe and observed from time to time by nurses which SB 1076 is aiming to maintain since rights of patients have been violated (Barr, 2016). Observation status see to it that patients stay for long without being checked and protected which put them at risk both financially and health wise since they will pay more without much protection. SB 1076 will ensure that patients put under observation do not spend long hours without getting attention so that they can receive treatments and go back home without necessarily remaining admitted in hospitals.

SB1076 comes up with new observation services that hospitals should provide to their patients without compromising the requirements (Barr, 2016). Nurse to patient ratios provided in the emergency units should be equal to the ratios provided in the observation units since for many years observation units have had less ratios compared to other units in hospitals. Mostly, observation services are provided in the outpatient unit. SB1076 requires that hospitals provide separate observation services data with other outpatient services where patients put under observation need a written document immediately so that they can be handled with care so that they can receive protection just like other admitted patients. Observation data need to be separate from the other outpatient services so that the statewide health planning and development office can plan for patients put under observation as well (Barr, 2016). Patients have in the past suffered from lack of attention from doctors since they are kept to wait for long hours and days because they are not in the doctor’s schedule. SB1076 aims at ensuring all patients placed under observation get the necessary protection and care since they require medical support and need not to remain burdened financially (Barr, 2016).

The existing law gives licenses to the general acute care hospitals in California. The law defines the hospitals as hospitals that work under 24 hours therefore provide care, protection to patients and therefore known to provide basic services to patients such as pharmacy, dietary facilities, laboratory services, anesthesia, surgical services, nursing services and the necessary medical services. In addition, the law additionally permits the general acute care hospitals provision of special services such as radiation therapy services, emergency centers, hemodialysis units, psychiatric services, newborn nurseries which are intensive, cardiac surgeries, special laboratories such as cardiac catheterization labs and lastly they are allowed to perform renal transplants. The law also gives permits to the acute care hospitals so that they can make application to the California Department of Public Health (CDPH) for them to receive approval of providing supplemental services such as outpatient clinics (Donough & Milbank Memorial Fund, 2011). The existing law limits provision of outpatient services to patients who remain in the outpatient clinics for periods not exceeding 24hours. The law therefore requires all the acute care hospitals to have reliable nurse to patient ratios so that patients can get medical attention from nurses since hospitals are defined by the law as critical care centers which should handle patients with intensive care.

Promoters of SB 1076

Most of the patients and nurses in California complained because observation patients did not get medical services just like those enjoyed by other patients (Shi & Singh, 2010). SB1076 is a bill that came up in order to save such patients who need to get medical attention since they pay to get the services. The bill advocates for observation patients to be treated equally with other patients therefore ensuring that the nurse to patient ratio in the observation unit is observed. Nurses should be enough in order to cater for the needs of these patients whose conditions are serious and unstable. The patients need to get monitored by nurses regularly, which is one theme of the bill. SB1076 pushes hard for this reform to take place so that nurses can be employed in most acute care hospitals not only in California but other states as well so that patients placed under observation can be well taken care of (Barr, 2016). All hospitals need to get permits so that the health department in all states can check whether they comply with the laid down requirements. All hospitals need to be safe and thus provide medical services to the patients at all times since health of people comes first always (Shi & Singh, 2010). SB1076 bill was welcomed by many people including patients and nurses who felt that observation units needed to provide enough care to the people.

Stakeholders of SB 1076

The bill focuses on a number of stakeholders such as the government, hospitals, hospital staffs, patients and the California health department (Emanuel, 2014). Therefore all these stakeholders need to work together so that the bill can be implemented since it will start being effective as a law from January 1^st 2017 (Barr, 2016). The health department should ensure it monitors the acute hospitals so that they give quality services to all patients and ensure the patients remain protected and safe all the time. Hospitals should only place patient under observation where necessary and incase the nurse to patients ratios allow so that patients cannot be placed under observation for longer durations of time. Observation services should be possible where patients can get monitored by nurses regularly and hence patients should not spend long hours in the observation units. This implies that hospitals will be required to give observation patients beds and other necessary materials that will ensure they remain comfortable. Unlike earlier where patients were not given good observation services SB1076 will ensure that patients remain comfortable and feel free while at the observation units (Barr, 2016). The patients will no longer be placed under observation for long hours.

Consequences resulting from SB 1076

SB1076 differentiates between inpatient services and outpatient services. Inpatient services are those services given to patients after patients get formal admission in the hospital where they will need to spend at least one night in the hospital (Leichter, 1997). On the other hand outpatient services are those services given to patients within periods not exceeding twenty four hours. However, most hospitals feel that they cannot count patients who are neither admitted nor outpatient patients but rather place them under observation. Such patients do not have formal admissions in the hospitals therefore do not enjoy the services given to the admitted patients. This has been posed many challenges since most patients placed under observation end up paying huge sums of money since they are compared with the admitted patients while in real sense they were not admitted. During early 2014, most patients placed under observation complained since they ended up paying huge bills yet they did not enjoy inpatient services (Barr, 2016). Therefore SB1076 aims at specifying between patients placed under observation and inpatients so that patients placed under observation cannot end up paying huge sums of money (Barr, 2016). In addition patients placed under observation need to enjoy certain services such as getting beds and attention from the hospital staff.

SB1076 is now a new law that needs to be implemented so that patients can enjoy their stay in hospitals and they can feel protected since without protection their heath conditions can even worsen. Through implementing this law the observation unit will now have similar standards with emergency unit since the emergency rooms are well equipped. The new law will ensure that observation rooms are well equipped so that patients can feel safe and protected since they should not be discriminated in the first place (Barr, 2016). The law will ensure that hospitals notify patients that observation services are part of the outpatient services where patients should know clearly that they are not part of the inpatients. The hospitals should clearly mark observation units as outpatient service areas so that patients cannot confuse and end up paying much money which they did not have to pay. The new law requires direct hospitals to report all observation services directly to the office of Statewide Health Planning and Development (Barr, 2016). This department will in turn monitor the observation units and ensure patients are getting the right treatment and care without discrimination and without paying much money compared to admitted patients.

SB1076 will ensure that patients placed under observation get medical attention from various hospitals. The law prohibits hospitals from evading all the necessary requirements by giving observation units other names (Daniels, 1998). The law requires that hospitals name observation units as the name suggest so that patients cannot confuse the observation units with other units. Patients placed under observation in most cases are not told their hospital status therefore they are kept in the dark. They are not monitored more often since the nurse patient ration does not allow for them to get monitored. All patients regardless of the unit they are in need to be monitored and well treated so that they can improve health wise as well (Engs, 2003). The law if well implemented will see to it that patients do not incur extra costs especially those placed under observation. Patients placed under observation need care and should not be charged similar charges with the admitted patients. The government should ensure that through the heath department on more complains will be received from patients placed under observation in terms of financial complains. In addition the governments should ensure that SB1076 is implemented in all hospitals so that excellent health services are provided to the people.

Opposers of SB 1076

Most of the insurance company opposed the bill since they feel that they cannot provide insurance services to patients placed under observation. They provide insurance services to the common outpatient patients and those admitted in hospitals. This discriminates patients placed under observation since they need to get insured by the various insurance companies they require more money compared to the other outpatient patients (Sparer, 1996). The bill was not opposed by many people since it ensured that the health rights of patients were respected. The bill finally became a law and will be enacted starting from 1^st January 2016 whereby patients will enjoy good observation services.  Most nurses and patients who advocated for the bill to be passed will now remain happy since the assembly in conjunction with the senate passed the bill which needs to be implemented starting from next year.

Recommendation resulting from SB 1076

Passing the bill brought happiness to many patients who had suffered since the observation unit was not appropriately handled. Recommendations that would ensure the bill is implemented include;

• The government should ensure that through the department of health the law is implemented so that cases of patients being mishandled can be prevented (Mechanic, 2006).
• The hospitals should ensure that nurse to patient ratio is maintained so that nurses can handle and monitor all patients without neglecting the observation unit.
• The government should provide funds to the hospitals so that observation rooms can be well equipped just like other rooms are equipped so that exceelentr services can be given to the patients.
• The hospitals should employ more nurses so that all patients can get monitored since it will make them feel better and comfortable.
• The government should ensure even patients who are placid under observation get medical covers and insurances to prevent them from spending much money.

References

Daniels, M. R. (1998). Medicaid reform and the American States: Case studies on the politics of managed care. Westport, Conn: Auburn House.

Barr, D. A. (2016). Introduction to US health policy: The organization, financing, and delivery    of health care in America.

Leichter, H. M. (1997). Health policy reform in America: Innovations from the states. Armonk,   Ny: M.E. Sharpe.

Emanuel, E. J. (2014). Reinventing American health care: How the Affordable Care Act will        improve our terribly complex, blatantly unjust, outrageously expensive, grossly inefficient, error prone system.

Shi, L., & Singh, D. A. (2010). Essentials of the U.S. health care system. Sudbury, Mass: Jones   and Bartlett Publishers.

Mechanic, D. (2006). The truth about health care: Why reform is not working in America. New   Brunswick, N.J: Rutgers University Press.

Lake, C. L., & Booker, P. D. (2005). Pediatric cardiac anesthesia. Philadelphia: Lippincott         Williams & Wilkins.

Donough, J. E., & Milbank Memorial Fund. (2011). Inside national health reform. Berkeley:       University of California Press.

Sparer, M. S. (1996). Medicaid and the limits of state health reform. Philadelphia: Temple           University Press.

Engs, R. C. (2003). The progressive era's health reform movement: A historical dictionary.          Westport, CT: Praeger.

Femininity and Health

 Before joining sociology class to gain new knowledge based on femininity and healthy, I had different views on this topic. What I thought about the terms femininity and health is that women value their healthy in terms of trying to maintain their body size. On the same point, women suffer from anorexia as a result of low self-esteem, obesity and other factors (Riley, Rodhan, Gavin, 349). Eating disorder is a serious health issue which leads to mental, physical illness and death. To deal with this problem, women often find help from health professionals where they get inpatient and outpatient treatment. Other thing which used to cling in my mind is that women unlike men develop eating disorders. From personal experience and exploration from both internal and external environment, I had little knowledge on the topic since I understood that in society roles, health is an issue of concern and so women finds the best practices to keep their body fit and be inclusive in society roles. In essence, before understanding the topic in a sociological manner, I viewed the topic through a negative insight since media could represent their body image as physically unhealthy unlike masculinity.  As I relate the topic with media and worldly view, women faces health challenges than men and they are highly vulnerable to health risks as a result of overweight and obesity (Riley, Rodhan, Gavin, 349).  According to my own observation, I believe that for women to be regarded as beautiful, she must have a thin body size. I believed this because many women struggle to carry out physical exercise and others spend one or two days without food so that they can get slim.

 After taking the sociology class, I have gained deeper knowledge and skills and now I understand the topic in another way. Though my ideas and sociological views define the topic as an issue of concern, there is a difference on how the health problems are dealt with. On my views, I believed  that the problem is solved through physical activities, medical treatment and  diet but  in sociological view,  the issue is not  longer related with external environment but rather  it is connected with  internet.   In other words, this is not a serious issue as people view it in that women are not using pills or physical activities to reduce weight (Riley, Rodhan, Gavin, 349).  There is a new technology for therapy and consultations. These make the femininity and health an issue that is bringing less health risk on women’s life.   In other words, technology has brought new digital diet and women are relying on tech support (Riley, Rodhan, Gavin, 351).  The important point is that there is a big difference between past and present views on feminist and health. This is because, before learning sociology, I perceived the topic as a threat to women’s life. However, though women still face health challenges, they are on the safe side since technology has come to play an important responsibility in helping women reduce weight and keep fit.

In sociology, among various readings that discusses the topic, there is one particular reading which helps to understand the topic   in a special way.  “Doing Weight: Pro-Ana and Recovery Identities in Cyberspace by Riley, Rodham and Gavin” is an important article which provide sociological views about the topic (Riley, Rodhan, Gavin, 349). The article asserts that Pro-and and Recovery websites are helping women recover from anorexia.   Both websites connects women with healthcare professionals where they get advice.  Pro-anorexia provides homepage warning notices such as thinspiration. People suffering from ana (anorexia and mia (bulimia) get tips and tricks on how to reduce weight. They also hold an open discussion where they share information based on weight loss. The articled asserts that women create identities and self-confidence.  The sites produce different types of body-talk and   discover the body-talk; the authors conducted a research from pro-ana and recovery forum eating disorders (Riley, Rodhan, Gavin, 357). According to the research, the findings show that both websites developed thin ideal and identities in eating disorders.  In addition, the websites introduced different types of body talk namely body description, body description with relation to practices and bodily experiences. This clearly shows that women are using the cyberspace to fight with anorexia. Cyberspace is acting as an alternative space where women are able to interact with others in the public sphere by having thin body hence eliminating isolation and disconnection (Riley, Rodhan, Gavin, 357).  A woman health is portrayed negatively by the media and their unhealthy live is seen as abnormal in the society. However, the websites have removed the shame and stigma   since the popular culture is showing concern on women’s health in terms of their bodies. The Pro-ana website acts as a support group where viewers gets some important features such as diaries, trigger pictures and more.  The important thing with the websites is that they empowers the ‘person inside’ and ensures that women are mentally healthy. In addition, the websites are weight management sites where women not only gains weight loss but also identity (Riley, Rodhan, Gavin, 358).

Work cited

Riley S.,Rodhan K., Gavin J. Doing Weight: Pro-Ana and Recovery Identities in Cyberspace. Journal of

Community & Applied Social Psychology. 19: 348–359 (2009)

Parenting an Autistic Child

Introduction

Research carried out in America has indicated that the number of children with autism has greatly increased with those receiving special education being over 140,000 in the last ten years (Gross, 2004). Autism is a disability that affects physical development as well as other skills necessary for growth of children such as social and communication skills. Psychological development and behavioral changes are some of the things affected by this unfortunate condition. The American Society of Autism identifies self-isolation, communication abnormalities, and obsessive as well as compulsive behaviors among children autism. Traditionally, this disability has always been attributed to parental negligence. In the recent, scientists have attributed autism to environmental as well as genetic factors (Volkmar & Weisner, 2004). Children experts advise parents to seek medical help immediately a child is diagnosed with the condition. There is no cure for the disease but professionals have advised for training and modifications in the behavior of children with the condition so that they can lead normal lives just like other children enjoy. Parents with children suffering from the condition admit that they face many challenges and stresses when handling their children. Both fathers and mothers sacrifice so that they can be good parents to their kids suffering from autism (Dunn et al., 2001). Divorces cases have been reported in parents having autistic children since families go through emotional problems and confusions (Jennings, 2005). In addition mothers suffer more and sacrifice more compared to fathers in parenting kids with autism (Bluth et al., 2015). Parents, who have autistic children need much support so that they can overcome challenges that come with parenting such kids and as well handle their kids with care, love and give them the necessary attention.

Autism is a mental disorder that occurs early in childhood during brain development (JH Miles, 2005).An autistic child is unable to use language to communicate and form relationships with the people effectively. This paper is very important since there has been a rapid increase in cases of children with autism with the United States recording 1in 90 births (Ganz 2007). These children have been neglected by parents, discriminated against and made to suffer due to the abnormalities they display hence fueling the need for support and assistance. Most parents are always filled with guilt and shame and due to ignorance as well as cultural beliefs on this condition treat these children differently from others. This paper will first examine the role of parents in bringing up children with autism, second, it will discuss the perceptions of parent-child interactive relationships with such children, challenges parents face while bringing up children with autism, Third, it will address the works of researchers on parenting children with autism, the methodology they used as well as critic the study and state the limitation of their study. Lastly, the paper will discuss the possible as well as recommendations that will help in curbing the menace.

It should be noted that children with autism present an extreme case when it comes to patterns of development. They hardly initiate behaviors that will engage others in social interactions with them. For instance, they always express a lack of interest in sharing things with others; they are always frowning and rarely express pleasure or draw attention hence making it hard for parents especially mothers of such children to smile in reply to the smile of their child as is always the case with normal children (Bluth et al., 2015). As a result, parents are forced to employ a mechanism of maintaining their child’s focus of attention. For example, they may use a physical control like holding the child on their lap while playing. There is always the feeling of depression and stress due to the failure of the child to connect with the mother since they are always so close with the child on a daily basis making her smile less. Parents always find such children to be difficult temperamentally, child moods; adaptability makes it hard for parents in their parental roles and often brings confusion in the family. These parents are often made to feel they are not competent to bring up the child and that they have less than they expected. There are issues with parental connections with the child as well as their social life because they feel the child needs control of their life and they cannot do something new concerning their lives since most times they are always feeling guilty and bad about the situation.

Research indicates that parents with children having other disabilities lead stress free lives compared to those whose children have autism since they face many challenges and stresses. Such parents need support from other parents so that they can overcome their stresses and shower their children with love and attention. Mothers feel frustrated handling autistic children since they cannot even socialize as other children do. They record feelings of alienation, cannot comfortably interact with other mothers and are segregated by other mothers who feel they are different from them. Besides, it has been hard on mothers to teach children things they are not familiar with. Hastings and Johnson (2001) indicate advanced stress in both parents of autism children who were school aged due to the impairments in communication, cognitive abilities as well as poor social relations between child and parent in research conducted on 30 mothers and 11 fathers.

According to Larson (2010) mothers whose children are autistic feel burdened and fatigued when handling their kids especially when they have to control their children when undertaking social activities. Mothers have to manage behaviors of their children which become tiresome and stressful. In addition (Davis & Charter, 2008) report that fathers whose parents are autistic found it difficult and tiresome to interact with them and rather leave them under the care of the mothers. Behaviors of the children in public places such as tantrums and odd vocalizations made fathers feel uncomfortable handling their children (Dominick et al. 2007). The child’s inability to eat or even self-regulate emotions, as well as resistance to touch or being held, presents stressful circumstances in parenting (Degangi et al. 2000)

Behaviors demonstrated by autism children, for instance, regulatory problems like eating, being emotional unstable as well as sleeping irregularities puts parenting in very stressful positions as well as an increase in psychological stress (Abbeduto et al., 2004).Also, parental mental health has adversely been affected due to the depression they go through in bringing up children with autism (Maxted et al. 2005). Parents who are poor tend to feel stressed since they have to provide more for their children in such conditions. Costs associated with this kind of disability including health care, education, rehabilitation, payment of caregivers as well as transportation is approximated as $90 billion yearly ( ASA, 2008). A study by Wiggs and Stores (2001) has identified parents with autistic children undergoing treatment for sleep problems.

Research Analysis

       There are various researchers who have analyzed parenting children with autism which this study will mainly analyze. (Davis & Carter, 2008) conducted a thorough research on what parents with autistic children go through and challenges they face when dealing with their children. Children selected for this study were those that both parents participated in the interviews and questionnaires. The two came up with 20 questionnaires that were filled by both parents of the children with autism. Fathers only answered the questionnaires while mothers were required to answer the questionnaires and participate in the interviews as well. The second selection of children involved one child per family whereby each parent gave their own observations regarding their children independently.   The limitation of this study was that it gave more attention to mothers than fathers of the child since it is only mothers that were interviewed and not fathers as well. Also, the research only concentrated on married couples and left out single parents or those that had divorced. Besides, parents who had autism were not sampled and included in the research. The research was very limited and was not wide enough since it only concentrated on a small clinical group. On the other hand, it is evident that the work of most researchers on parenting autistic children is centered on mothers and leaving out or rather providing too little on parenting by fathers of such children (Estes et al., 2009).

Theoretical justification

This paper will discuss the refrigerator mother theory which will enable people understand the condition of autism. According to Synapse, (n.d) the refrigerator theory was established in 40s where it was used to guide mothers of autistic children. Most of the people were not aware of the condition and often criticized mothers whose children suffered from autism. The society thought the condition was abnormal and often accused mothers because of this unusual condition. They thought the abnormal behavior was as a result of the standoffishness of the mothers which was not the case. Many mothers were blamed thus feeling remorseful and even doubted themselves feeling like they could be the reason for their children’s condition. The societal view on autism continued until the 70s. Bruno Bettelheim was one of the professors in Chicago University who believed that autism came as a result of mothers failing to bond properly with their kids. He associated the disorder with mothers who were cold to their kids therefore creating a barrier between them and the kids who ended up developing this unusual condition. In addition Leo Kanner, a psychiatrist in 1943, suggested that autism developed due to lack of necessary maternal care and warmth which should be given by the mother to the child (Synapse, n.d).

The refrigerator mother theory was passed on from the 40s, 70s till the 90s where another research Alice Miller came up with different reasons why the condition of autism affected children. She argued out that autism was actually psychogenic and unlike her forerunners she conducted a research before coming up with conclusions on this unusual condition (Synapse, n.d). Miller visited many therapy centers for people with autism thereby listening to the views and stories told by children who had the condition. She believed that parents had something to do with the mental wellness of their kids depending on the upbringing of the kids and the environment they are exposed to when they are small. Miller did a good job in carrying out this research since other people jumped into conclusions even without carrying out formal research. However, she only concentrated on visiting the therapy centers for people living with autism rather than visiting parents of the affected children. She did not carry out her research in various homes where parents and their autistic children lived. If she had carried out her research in the therapy centers and homes, the research would have been valid since it would not remain biased. Children who were found in the therapy centers could have given irrelevant stories since they are mentally challenged. A balanced research would involve interviewing kids and their parents as well as close relatives and friends so as to avoid bias.

Jay Joseph also released a book in 2006 that challenges the existing genetic theory on autism. According to Joseph, it is clear that the current theory is weak as it does not offer any substantial explanation, though many almost accepted it. Joseph argues that the theory mainly focuses on family studies and is not able to straighten out the political manipulations of genes and environment. Additionally, the four small twin studies conducted for this are methodically flawed which renders them incapable of explaining this theory. In the years that have followed, researchers that have been done have proved futile.

Community interventions

Community support has been useful to parents having autistic kids whereby both parents and kids are supported. Research indicates that support is equally available for kids with other types of disabilities. . There are established programs for parents with such children whereby they are trained on employing specific behavioral management skills, communication skills as well as interactive skills. The community programs however are not as effective as they are supposed to be since most of the parents with autistic children are poor therefore cannot afford services such as therapy to their kids. They lack the necessary knowledge on how to train and take care of their kids since they are financially disadvantaged. Parents face many challenges, stress and depression when handling their kids thus they do not collaborate in the community intervention programs. However, community interventions that have been able to offer specific programs purposely designed for autism, included problem solving sessions, communication skills, and self-control among others that will help these parents execute programs that will benefit their children when these social barriers are done away with (Webster-Stratton and Reid, 2003).parents are taught and trained on how to handle their kids and given time when they need to take their kids for therapy. They are taught on reasons they should appreciate their kids thus shower them with love.

Recommendations

• Establishment of family based centers in every community where parents can be trained on strategies to develop in interacting with their children while focusing on best homemade programs
• Participation of parents as well as caregivers in the entire process of formulation and running of such community organizations to reflect their needs and interests as well as cooperation
• Establishment of home program intervention that will ensure both parents and their autistic kids live comfortably and normally.
• Coming up with awareness programs where the public is taught on the autism disorder and ways of handling such kids and necessary support parents with these kids need from the society.

Conclusion

It is evident that autism is a disorder that causes much stress and challenges to parents. It is the joy of all parents to have kids but parents with autistic kids pass through stress as they raise their kids since they have unusual behavior patterns unlike other children. However, mothers are the most affected compared to fathers. The community needs to understand the autism condition and help parents having autistic kids since they pass through many challenges thus they need moral, emotional and financial support. Autism being a social problem, need to be well handled whereby people should not discriminate kids with autism and instead they should come up with training centers for the kids so that they can be taught on various social patterns such as communication. Parents with autistic kids need to appreciate themselves and their kids for them to raise their kids with love, care and attention. As parents learn how to accept their kids, the society will accept them too and ensure they learn the normal behavioral patterns.

References

Abbeduto, L., Seltzer, M. M., Shattuck, P., Krauss, M. W., Orsmond, G., & Murphy, M. M.                     (2004). Psychological well-being and coping in mothers of youths with autism, down                     syndrome, or fragile X syndrome. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 109(3),          237-254.

Autism Society of America Mar 3, 2008. About autism. Retrieved from; http://www.autism-            society.org/site/PageServer?pagename=about_home.

Baron-Cohen, S. (2008). Autism and Asperger syndrome. Oxford University Press.

Dabrowska, A., & Pisula, E. (2010). Parenting stress and coping styles in mothers and fathers                  of pre‐school children with autism and Down syndrome. Journal of Intellectual          Disability Research, 54(3), 266-280.

Davis, N. O., & Carter, A. S. (2008). Parenting stress in mothers and fathers of toddlers with       autism spectrum disorders: Associations with child characteristics. Journal of autism             and developmental disorders, 38(7), 1278-1291.

DeGangi, G. A., Breinbauer, C., Roosevelt, J. D., Porges, S., & Greenspan, S. (2000).                   Prediction of childhood problems at three years in children experiencing disorders of            regulation during infancy. Infant Mental Health Journal, 21(3), 156-175.

Dominick, K. C., Davis, N. O., Lainhart, J., Tager-Flusberg, H., & Folstein, S. (2007).                  Atypical behaviors in children with autism and children with a history of language               impairment. Research in developmental disabilities, 28(2), 145-162.

Dunn, M. E., Burbine, T., Bowers, C. A., & Tantleff-Dunn, S. (2001). Moderators of stress in      parents of children with autism. Community mental health journal, 37(1), 39-52.

Estes, A., Munson, J., Dawson, G., Koehler, E., Zhou, X. H., & Abbott, R. (2009). Parenting       stress and psychological functioning among mothers of preschool children with                     autism and developmental delay. Autism, 13(4), 375-387.

Ganz, M. L. (2007). The lifetime distribution of the incremental societal costs of autism.              Archives of pediatrics & adolescent medicine, 161(4), 343-349.

Gross, J. (2004). For families of autistic, the fight for ordinary.

Hastings, R. P., & Johnson, E. (2001). Stress in UK families conducting an intensive home-                      based behavioral intervention for their young child with autism. Journal of autism and           developmental disorders, 31(3), 327-336.

Jennings, S. (2005). Autism in children and parents. Family Court Review, 43(4), 582-595.

Larson, E. (2010). Ever vigilant: Maternal support of participation in daily life for boys with                     autism. Physical & occupational therapy in pediatrics, 30(1), 16-27.

Maxted, A. E., Dickstein, S., Miller‐Loncar, C., High, P., Spritz, B., Liu, J., & Lester, B. M.         (2005). Infant colic and maternal depression. Infant Mental Health Journal, 26(1), 56-   68.

Moffit, S. (October 8, 2011) Retrieved from; http://www.autismkey.com/autism-caused-by-                     depression-of-mothers/

Synapse. (n.d.). Refrigerator Mothers- A Discredited Cause of Autism. Retrieved from     http://www.autism-help.org/points-refrigerator-mothers.htm

Volkmar, F. R., & Wiesner, L. A. (2004). Healthcare for children on the autism spectrum: a                     guide to medical, nutritional, and behavioral issues. Woodbine House Inc.

Waltz, M. (April 2015). Mothers and Autism: The Evolution of a Discourse of Blame.                  Retrieved from http://journalofethics.ama-assn.org/2015/04/mhst1-1504.html

Wiggs, L., & Stores, G. (2001). Behavioral treatment for sleep problems in children with   severe             intellectual disabilities and daytime challenging behavior: effect on mothers      and           fathers. British Journal of health psychology, 6(3), 257-269.