Development and psychosocial stages

A normal human being is recommended to pass through eight stages of psychological development. In every stage the individual gains new experiences and ideas where one experiences new changes. The stages must be fully completed failure to which challenges may be experienced in future by the individual. An individual must develop both socially as well as cultural developments. An individual must develop in a healthy manner thus the health experience affects development either positively or negatively (Greene, 2008). A healthy experience enables development to be successful even in future while failure of development occurs when one is not exposed to good health care services. Development is enhanced by the social interaction since our experiences changes we interact and get new ideas from other people who were initially absent. A person’s behavior is guided by different surrounding and cultural activities (Greene, 2008). Some cultural beliefs and values help shape the social behavior of an individual.

Identity makes the individual have a sense of belonging to a particular group, family and society. The process of gaining identity is continuous right from childhood. Competence is also required in the psychological development process. An individual must show competence as a way of showing that one has fully developed successful. There are many experiences that affect the successful growth and development of an individual’s psychology (Nevid, 2009). An individual should not proceed to one development stage before fully completing the other one as a way of enhancing competent psychological development. The development is guided by nature and which enables development to remain natural. (Nevid, 2009) Children are easily handled compared to adults and thus development must be well maintained during the childhood ages other than old stage. Development depends on present experience of the individual which will affect the future positively or negatively.

References

Greene, R. R. (2008). Human behavior theory & social work practice. New Brunswick, N.J:             AldineTransaction.

Nevid, J. S. (2009). Psychology: Concepts and applications. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co.

Racism in the Criminal Justice System

Introduction

            ‘In a crowd of mixed race suspects of a robbery with violence, the black or Latino Americans are likely to be arrested that the white suspect.’ This was part of a conversation of law students at a collage park during class recess. The question as to whether the criminal justice system in the United States is racist is one that has been a question of hot debate over the years. In fact, this is a topic that has divided the United States in the middle. Those that believe that the system is in fact not discriminatory factor in a lot of other elements such as the arrest rates and the crimes that are being committed. Others factors that the proponents in this case argue include the fact that the evidence that is presented in the particular case is not in fact discriminatory in nature. On the other hand, those that believe that the system is in fact discriminatory argue that the discrimination is not in fact in the whole system but in some of the stages in the system such as the arresting or the imprisonment. There have been arguments as to the amount of force that has been used to make arrests as well as death penalties that have been applied based on race. The same concerns have also been pointed out in the application of drug policies that seem to target specific races while being lenient on other. Basically, there are numerous reports and studies that outline the fact that there is in fact ample evidence of racism in the United States criminal justice. There is need for there to be a unanimous consensus among policy makers, criminal justice administrators as well as academicians of the existence of this vice and a united front against it. As part of the academic input, this study examines to what extent, the vice of racism is entrenched in the criminal justice system.

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 Counseling Theories

INTRODUCTION

            Counseling is a concept that has been around for years, maybe centuries. This is attributed to the fact that as long as human beings exist in a particular social setting, there are bound to sets of problems that more often than not require the more than one particular mindset. Thus, counseling comes in. it occurs when a particular individual decides to consult another person about a problem present in that parsons immediate social surrounding/life. This problem may be in form of a conflict or a dilemma that is affecting that particular person and in essence preventing them from living a contented life.

            The role of a counselor can be taken up by anybody that has the ability to listen and contribute to the solution finding mechanism. However, counseling cannot simply be described as solution finding. Over the years, professional counselors and psychologists have been able to come up with methods that are able to efficiently treat different patients depending on a number of vectors surrounding a particular patient. This vectors range from the type of patient being treated to the type of problem being treated (Gillon, 2007). These types of treatment observed by these specialists is what can be referred to as counseling theories.

            The distinction of one theory from the other is a very important aspect of the field for it ultimately narrows down the technique that a counselor or psychologist is likely to pick for particular patients. While there are a number of developed counseling theories, this particular paper will select and focus on three well known and published theories that have been able yield sufficient good results when adopted in the counseling profession. These include person-centered, transactional analysis and rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT) counseling theories (Woolfe et.al, 2009).

Person-centered theory of counseling

            This theory of counseling was advanced by a psychologist called Carl Rogers in the 1940/50. This type of therapy believed to belong to the humanistic school of thought in therapy mainly focuses on the client themselves. Unlike other advanced theories, this particular theory focuses on the client rather than the therapist. This means that the therapist ceases to be the focus. Rogers believed that the client knows what hurts, what directions to go, what problems are crucial, what experiences have been buried (Rogers, 1961). Thus rather than the therapist offering the solution to the problem, he/she would only help the client take charge of their own lives/problems. Rogers believed that by understanding and encouraging the patient, they would have freedom to grow.

            This method of therapy that was originally referred to as the non-directive method of therapy relies on the fact that it is human nature to find a sense of accomplishment in ones achievement at the end of the day. Thus, this theory greatly relies on the patient being the main catalyst of his own healing. In this case the role of the therapist is to act as a communication model but does not provide the answers. That is up to the client. However, the counselor provides a structure as well as a guidance format that will ultimately help the client provide the solutions that are within themselves (Rogers et.al, 2013).

            Rogers ultimately come up with six factors that would help stimulate growth within the client/patient. These are often also referred to as requirements for therapeutic change. The first is that there has to be a relationship between the patient/client and the counselor. The client has to vulnerable or incongruent this in turn requires that the therapist be congruent or rather genuine for the theory to be able to fully function. Once the relationship has been created, it is the duty of the therapist to be completely open-minded and accept the client regardless of their problem. Once the therapist is open-minded about the client and their problem they have to then be empathetic as well as understanding towards that particular client and their problem (Glauser & Bozarth, 2001). Finally, it is imperative that the client understands and perceives the counselors empathy as well as understanding. By establishing these steps, the therapist will create a relational climate built on congruence, empathy and unconditional positive regard that will allow for a positive change in the client.

Transactional analysis theory

            Transactional therapy is also commonly referred to as psychotherapy. This theory was originally propagated by Doctor Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). This particular theory focuses on an individual’s childhood and how that particular childhood experiences have ended up affecting their actions, characters and thoughts as grown-ups. Thus this method focuses on the psychological structure of humans and zones in on the human ego-state which is the parent-adult-child model.

            This particular theory shifts the focus of human reactions and behaviors from a being internal thoughts to the environment in which that particular parson exists. Thus, the actions taken are as a result of repeated patterns of particular behaviors. In this case, the theory suggests that in life, human continue enacting a ‘life script’ which is to mean that the subconscious minds continue to re-play childhood strategies even as grown-ups (Prout & Brown, 2007). Thus an analysis of this particular script according to an individual’s personal characters would essentially help in ‘curing’ that particular person. The propagator of this theory believed that all people had one form or the other of their ego state and that treating those perceived to be ‘sick’ was not the ultimate solution; that there had to be a more general outlook.

            This particular philosophy propagates that people are okay and that this feeling is increased with positive reinforcement. The theory further affirms that all people have a lovable core with a desire for growth and that in fact, with the exception of a few individuals, all humans have the capacity to think. All facets of a human beings live have a positive impact on them. The philosophy finally believes that people decide their fate and destiny and if that’s the case then the decisions they make can ultimately be changed. That said, the theory concludes that all emotional difficulties are curable (Clarke, 2012).  

            This particular method relies on a number of conventional methods that tap into the unconscious mind in an effort to try and understand current decisions as well as dilemmas. The methods include free association wit the client in an effort of trying to study them and their behavior. This interaction is accompanied with an analysis of resistances created by the patient as well as transferences that occurred at the human ego-state. This includes examining whether there were behavioral transferences from one stage to the other more so from ones childhood. Finally in some cases, the therapist will include dream analysis as well as interpretation. This method, while it may seem extreme in some cases is used to tap into the unconscious mind. In doing so, the unconscious mind is made conscious so that the patient can be able to gain an insight into their problem.

Rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT) counseling theory

            Also known as the cognitive behavioral therapy, this particular school of thought focuses on the human thoughts and opinions more often than not end up affecting the way that individual behaves or feels. This particular theory propones that human beings are reactive, and will more often than not, respond to external stimuli. Thus, our behavior will always be as a result of constant learning as well as conditioning (Ellis, 2000).

            The theory concludes that because our behavior is learned then it can as easily be ‘unlearned’. This method of counseling therefore concludes that that if a negative thought pattern is established and that a particular client is made aware of the fact that this pattern exists then it can be easier to learn a new positive way of thinking. Being able to grasp this new positive way of thinking will ultimately affect not only their feelings but also their behavior for the good of not only themselves but for the society as well (David et.al, 2005).

Comparisons and contrasts between the theories

            These three commonly used theories in counseling and therapy have all been successfully applied in different aspects of life and have been found to work. This is regardless of the fact that they follow different schools of thought as well as ideologies and application methods. Nonetheless, what is clear is the fact that they all aim to help improve the state of the human mind. Despite the different aspects as well as applicable methods, there are some noted similarities as well as contrasts in not only the thinking of these theories but also the way they are applied in counseling.

            There are some comparisons between the person-centered theory and the Transactional Therapy theory as far as the subconscious mind is concerned. Both recognize the existence of this particular part of the brain/psyche that is more often than not ignored. They both focus on the personality structure that is more often than not suppressed. Both the super-ego and the self-concept, can be said to describe internalized rules and moral values which have been imposed upon human by the people that surround and nature us. However, in contrast to the Transactional Therapy theory, the Person-centered theory focuses on the conscious mind and what is going on presently while the former focuses on the past and more so the clients’ childhood. Thus, while the former deals with self actualization, the later deals with insight (Corey, 2011). It can also be safely concluded that while the former focuses on the positive in a human’s ability to progress by themselves the later focuses largely of the negative aspects that may have impacted that human.

            On the other hand, the Person-centered Approach and rational emotive behavior therapy bear semblance on the fact that they both deal with the conscious mind. They focus on the current problems that the client may have rather than examine that person’s past. They examine the human nature as positive by focusing on the present rather that their past by focusing on the fact that humans have the ability to shape their own destiny. Thus they can be concluded to have the healing factor of using today to heal tomorrow (Ellis & Dryden, 2007). Another similarity between these two is the fact that both utilize the core conditions of empathy, unconditional positive regard and congruence to be able to create a working relationship between the two parties. Both also use the skills of reflection, paraphrasing and summarizing to be able to help then patient come to a suitable healing process. However, these two theories do not see eye to eye as far as their theoretical rational is concerned. This is because while on one hand, the former examines behavior as a learned response while the later believes that the client had the response was not learnt but rather experienced unknowingly (Smith, 2007).

As far as behavior is concerned there is a huge difference between Transactional analysis and Rational emotive behavior therapy theories. The former encourages clients to examine and try to uncover their past while the later is goal oriented in terms of focusing on the here and now. There is also the fact that in both theories, the problems are linked to a younger age and thus require tackling from the ‘root cause’.

Conclusion

            Different theories have been proponed on how to deal with clients in need of professional therapy. Depending on the type of client as well as the problem being tackled, different methods have over the years been engaged by professionals that have been able to assist clients. Regardless of the method used, what remains clear is the fact that therapy has come a long way in establishing calm and offering solutions to the client. What remains clear is the fact that the different theories have been tailor made to tackle the diversity of clients that are in need of counseling. Thus, whether the professional uses one method or two or three at the same time, at the end of the day, then goal is achieved which is to ensure that a relationship in established that will ensure the clients problems are solved and that they are at peace with themselves.

References

Rogers, Carl, Lyon, HC, Tausch, R. (2013) On Becoming an Effective Teacher -- Person-  centered teaching, Psychology, Philosophy, and Dialogues with Carl R. Rogers and     Harold Lyon. London: Routledge

Rogers, C. R. (1951). Client-centered therapy: Its current practice, implications and theory  (p.491). Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Glauser, A. S., & Bozarth, J. D. (2001). Person‐Centered Counseling: The Culture Within. Journal of Counseling & Development, 79(2), 142-147.

Clarke, S. L. (2012) Clarke's Dictionary of Transactional Analysis

Prout, H. T., & Brown, D. T. (2007). Counseling and Psychotherapy with Children and Adolescents: Theory and Practice for School and Clinical Settings. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons.

Ellis, A., & Dryden, W. (2007). The Practice of Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy. New York: Springer Pub. Co.

Ellis, A. (2000). Rational-Emotive Behaviour Therapy. Six key approaches to counseling & therapy. London: Paston PrePress, 181-227.

David, D., Szentagotai, A., Eva, K., & Macavei, B. (2005). A synopsis of rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT); fundamental and applied research. Journal of rational-emotive and cognitive-behavior therapy, 23(3), 175-221.

Corey, G. (2011). Theory and practice of group counseling. Cengage Learning.

Smith, S. R. (2007). Applying theory to policy and practice: Issues for critical reflection. Aldershot: Ashgate.

Gillon, E. (2007). Person-centred counselling psychology: An introduction. Los Angeles: SAGE.

Woolfe, R., Strawbridge, S., Douglas, B., & Dryden, W. (2009). Handbook of Counselling  Psychology. London: Sage Publications.

Social Problems and Moral Panic

Part A

Describe what Goode and Ben-Yehuda are talking about in this article

            The authors believe that in any given society, occasionally there is usually an explosion of fear and concern about a perceived fear and threat. They believe that during this time, a specific agent is usually deemed responsible for that particular threat and that each of these times, sober assessment of these threats will often yield exaggerated results. This means that if the situation were to be closely examined, then it would be found that the perceived threat was really no threat at all. Often, there is a tendency to blow things out of proportion.

            The authors believe that these episodes, referred to as moral panic, are because of specific social forces and dynamics. They believe that threats are a product of the human imagination, and are usually constructed socially and politically by our environment. The authors go ahead and give scenarios where small issues have been blown out of proportion by society while blaming it on some unseen force.

            They believe that there are three theories that explain this type of moral panic; grass-root engineered, elite engineered and interest group theories. These theories are looked at in two dimensions namely the morality vs. interests and elitism vs. grassroots dimensions.

Part B

What are social problems and moral panics?

Social problems

            According to the authors, social problems can be approached and defined in two perspectives; they can be either objective or constructive. Under the objective perspective, social problems are defined by the existence of an objective, real, damaging, or threatening condition. This school of thought believes that what makes a given condition dangerous is that it harms or endangers the human life or his well-being.

On the other hand, the people who subscribe to the constructive perspective school of thought believe that social problems should be defined according to degree of concern and attention given to the particular issue. According to this school of thought, social problems do not exist but are merely because of the human mind. Constructive theorists believe that social problems are manifested in a number of ways. Some of the members will in a organized and collectively manner do something, protest, or call attention to a condition, making the social problem social movements. They will make legislations that will deal with the individuals supposedly involved in the social problem. The ranking in hierarchy of the social problem is also put into consideration. Lastly, the discussion of the public on that given issue is what makes it a social problem.

Moral panic

            The authors believe that moral panic can be defined in five essential criteria. There have to be heightened concerns by the society over the supposed behavior of a certain group and the impact of that behavior on the larger community. The particular group that is deemed the perpetrators of the specific behavior receives heightened hostility by the community, which deems itself respectable and law abiding. The behavior of the group is seen as harmful to the existence of the community. There is usually a measure of agreement, no matter how small, in part or the whole society that the problem is real, serious and is caused by the wrongdoing of the group and their conduct.

            There is usually the tendency to blow the issue out of proportion. The nature of the particular threat in question is usually exaggerated than what a sober empirical evaluation would have supported. The community tends to make the proverbial mountains out of molehills of the issue.

            Lastly, moral panics tend to be very volatile. This means that these panics occur suddenly and die down as quickly as they surfaced, making them short term in nature. Often these panics had also previously occurred over a period back in community’s history. The community may either institutionalize these moral panics or forget them all together.

Part C

What is claims-making activity, who are the claims-makers, and how does this all relate to moral entrepreneurs and moral entrepreneurship?

            Claim makers are persons or individual who articulate and promote claims and who stand to gain in one way or the other if the target audience accepts their claim as true. On the other hand, claim-making activity is an action taken to draw action to a claim (Ferrante, 2011).Moral entrepreneurs on the other hand are individuals, groups or formal organizations that seek to influence a group to adopt or maintain a behavioral standard. They usually take the lead in labeling a particular behavior and spreading or popularizing this label throughout society.

            Moral entrepreneurs attribute negative labels to behavior as well as the removal of negative labels, positively labeling, or removing positive labels. They may press for the creation or enforcement of a standard for any number of reasons, altruistic or selfish. Such individuals or groups also hold the power to generate moral panic.

Moral entrepreneurship can in essence be termed as part of claim-making activities. This is because claim-makers are often seen as inventors of social problems, and the effects of their activities often lead to outcomes of considerable social significance. The main aim of their claim making is to identify subjective individual or groups’ values, perceptions and attitudes, make them into objective phenomena, which are believed by society, and make society believe that these phenomena need corrective actions or solutions (Jamrozik et. al, 1998). Moral entrepreneurs see some sort of evil in the society and decide to fight it, which is exactly what entails claim-making activities.

Part D

How does Stanley Cohen’s work on folk devils and moral panics fit into it?

Stanley Cohen, in his work, Folk Devils and Moral Panics, was the first person who first coined the term moral panics. He defined the notion as a sporadic episode, which, as it occurs, subjects’ society to bouts of moral panic, or in other terms, worry about the values and principles which society upholds which may be in jeopardy (Cohen, 1987). He describes its characteristics as "a condition, episode, person, or group of persons who become defined as a threat to societal values and interests. He went on to discuss the way in which the mass media fashions these episodes, or styled them, amplifying the nature of the facts and consequently turning them into a national issue, when the matter could have been contained on a local level.

Cohen believed that The amplification which took place through the media's work served to appeal to the public so that they could concur with ready-made opinions about the course of action to be taken, and these opinions were found from the members of what he refers to as the 'moral barricade', i.e. bishops, politicians and editors. Combined with the opinions of the 'experts' who are wheeled out to give their diagnosis, they reached an agreement about how to cope with the situation in hand, and the problem either disappeared or at least deteriorated.

Part E

What are the five stages of moral panic identified by Goode and Ben-Yehuda? What are the three models of moral panic that they discuss?  

Stages of moral panic

According to the authors, there are five stages of moral panic. For moral panic to be said to have taken hold in a given society, there are five main stages that the society has to go through.

Concern occurs when there is heightened level of concern over the supposed behavior of a certain group of individuals and the consequences of those behaviors on the society. This concern is voiced and articulated within that society by claim-makers.

There is an increased level of hostility towards the people seen as engaging in the threatening behavior. Here members of the perceived group are seen as enemies of the law-abiding society. Their behaviors are seen as harmful to the values of the society.

The society or some members of the society that the threat posed by the behavior of the group is indeed harmful to the society’s morals reach consensus. These sentiments need not be felt by the whole society, it is sufficient that the sentiment is wide spread.

There must be a minimum measure of consensus that the threat is real by the society as a whole or by a small segment that the threat is serious. This agreement must be widespread although not necessarily by every individual of the society will like it.

There is usually the tendency of disproportionality of the issue on the part of the society. The nature of the particular threat in question is usually exaggerated than what a sober empirical evaluation would have supported.

The moral panic always turns volatile. This means that the issue is ignited quickly and dies out after a short period. The panics also tend to resurface over a period the quickly die out again.

Models of moral panic

Grass root model

This model agitates that panic originates with the public. Concerns about the threat are widespread and genuinely felt by the society. An individual group of persons does not raise the concern but rather it is spontaneously felt by the whole society. Mostly this kind of panic arises after a quite anxiety is catalyzed and explodes into a full on panic. This kind of moral panic raises from deeply felt attitudes and beliefs of a broad sector of the society that particular phenomenon present a threat to their values and their existence.

Elite-engineered model

The model propones that a small and powerful group or groups deliberately and knowingly undertake a campaign to generate and sustain fear and panic on the part of the public over an issue that they are aware is not harmful to the whole society. These campaigns are usually used to divert the publics’ attention from the real issues at hand whose solutions would act against the interests of those elites.  

Interest group theory

This is the most accepted theory. Under this theory, rule creatore and moral entrepreneurs instigate moral panics to ensure that particular rules take hold and are enforced within the society.

Part F

After you have analyzed Goode and Ben-Yehuda’s article, you should show how it relates to the other course material

In current society, often there are events that occur that lead to moral panic in the community. Crime is at the top of this list of social events. The society has in so many years, handled crime in a way that would only be described as moral panic. Often this panic is triggered by a crime that occurs in the society that leads the people to panic. This panic when later analyzed will be found to have been exaggerated. However, during that specific time the community will look for some one to blame for the crime. In some cases, foe example, if an individual who fits a certain profile committed the first crime, then the community will immediately try to avoid people who may fit that profile. More over, the community will react to that crime and its offenders with increased hostility as well as ensuring that the penalty of that particular is made to be worse than it should have been.  

Part G

What do Sacco and Kennedy say in the textbook about social problems and moral panics?

In their textbook, the two authors link social problems with moral panic. According to the book, fear is affected by social disorder or what the authors term as incivility. These they believe refer to low level breaches of the social order that while not strictly criminal in nature always seem to be related to a sense of unease. The book also acknowledges that there are two types of incivilities; physical and social.

The social incivilities include things such as disorder, which often tend to raise the levels of fear in a society. The authors insist that social problems such as crime increase fear within a community, which in turn leads to moral panic. This moral panic makes people more cautious about other person, which allows them to exert greater guardianship over their persons and property. The authors believe that the publics’ reaction to social problems such as crime is usually very subtle and routine; however, sometimes the media, government and the public itself overreact in what would only be termed as moral panic.      

Part H

Why do they deal with this subject when talking about the aftermath of criminal events?

The aftermath of any criminal activity is often characterized by fear not only of the victim but of the larger community as well. The community becomes concerned of issues such as if the crime will increase in the community, the potential threat to their person and the risk that the crime might pose to those who were not victims of the crime. The response of the community is very crucial. Mostly the whole community or a part of the community will push for immediate and strong intervention by both the police and the criminal justice system. Moral panic represents an extreme response of the community to the crime: an intense reaction to crime problems that includes strident calls for action, even when the crimes being committed are few in number and not widely threatening to the public.

Part I

What does Unit 7 of the Study Guide say about these topics?

Unit 7 of the study guide acknowledges that indeed there is a close relationship between social problems and moral panic. The unit emphasizes on the repercussions of the state of panic in a given society to the social problems that face that particular society especially concerning crime. The unit explains how crime affects the community and how the community in turn reacts to that crime and the individual who commit the crimes. The unit links people fear of crimes with their media diets as well as their interactions in the society. The unit concludes that this fear brought about by threat brings out a kind of fever that is characterized by strong emotions such as fear and even strong feelings of righteousness.

References

Cohen, S. (2002) Folk Devils and Moral Panics: The Creation of the Mods and Rockers (third edition).London: Routledge.

Cohen, S. (1980). Folk Devils and Moral Panics: The Creation of the Mods and Rockers. Oxford: Martin Robertson

Ferrante-Wallace, J. (2011). Sociology: A global perspective. Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth.

Goode, E., Ben-Yehuda, N., & Wiley InterScience (Online service). (2009). Moral panics: The social construction of deviance. Chichester, U.K: Wiley-Blackwell.

Jamrozik, A., & Nocella, L. (1998). Sociology of social problems: Theoretical perspectives and methods of intervention. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Joyce , P. (2013) Criminal Justice: An Introduction. New York, NY: Routledge

Sacco, V. F., & Kennedy, L. W. (2011). The criminal event: An introduction to criminology in Canada. Toronto: Nelson Education.

Smith, P., & Natalier, K. (2005). Understanding criminal justice: Sociological perspectives. London [u.a.: SAGE.

Heterosexuality

Introduction

            Various scholars have tried to address the issues related to the male heterosexuality. Most of the studies indicate that the male heterosexuality has been associated with the body masculinity. This is essay present some of the works by different scholars who have researched on the male heterosexuality. This essay therefore presents a strong argument that the scholarships on the heterosexuality have successfully addressed the male position and perspectives.  

Defining of heterosexuality

            Scholars like Murray Drummond (2011) have tried to present some of the reflection on the archetypal heterosexual male bodies. In this article the author first tries to analyze what the term heterosexually indicate and how to identify the male heterosexual body (Murray, 2011). In this case he presents a scenario that the men are considered heterosexual if they possess a masculine body with a sporting body. However, he indicates that slimy and non-athletic men are thought to be gay. This therefore implies looking and being masculine plays a critical role in defining a heterosexual males. In order for the author to prove his point he also cites the works of other writers such as Connel (1983) who have also presented the idea that ‘being ‘and ‘doing’ form the basis of defining a heterosexual male(Murray,2011). This is because many of the authors argue that the heterosexual male body is supposed to have certain features and at the same time do or perform certain function. In this case the male heterosexual body is supposed to have an archetypical male physique. This archetypical male physique has seemingly been established within the psychosocial context, which has created a considerable social-cultural concern. This is because most of the men who are considered straight have to meet the criteria of first having an archetypal type of body.

            Moreover Murray Drummond in his article he also indicates that the male heterosexuality is associated with the perception of strength and power (Murray, 2011). This is in relation to the male to the v-shaped male body, which is characterized by the broad shoulders and a considerable large chest. In addition other features that are also associated with the male heterosexuality include the penises and the testis. Women also have been known to contribute to defining the male heterosexuality. This is because most of the women usually indentify the heterosexual men as those who possess the robust body and therefore having the capacity to father children. Murray 2011 also indicates that owing to the backlash that had confronted the gay in the 1980 concerning HIV/AIDS many of them who were slimy began bodybuilding to be more masculine. This is because the masculine body is mainly associated with the straight men. Most of the gay men begun bodybuilding to help to them to pass the test of being considered straight. However it is important to note that this notion begun to change the whole concept of the gay people. This is because from this period most of the gay people continued with the body building exercise since it was associated with the straight men and with high degree of athleticism. This concept increasingly led to the development of the new idea that the gay are muscular and have athletic, aesthetic body.

            Research has also been conducted on the meaning of the straight men in the perspective of a boy, adolescence, adult men and the aging men. In this case a research conducted by Murray indicated that according to the boys between the ages of five and six years they usually have a clear concept of what the male body can do. Most of these young men have the idea that the male body can be able to lift heavy weights given that the body has a lot of energy and power. In addition the young boys also consider the male body has the capacity to adapt to the sport more than the female body. In the adolescence the author indicates that most of them argue in terms of what their body should be. From his study it is interestingly to note most of the adolescent associate heterosexuality with the male with muscularity such as those exhibited by the Arnold Schwarzenegger. Most of the male adolescence also associated muscular body with things such as sport. In relation to this the author present an illustration where two adolescence boys associated the masculinity with two big Australian men who play in the Australia Football league who play in the offensive and defensive positions. Other adolescence also associated male muscularity with the professionals in the World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE). In relation to the adult male the concept of heterosexuality has been associated with the rejection of the notion of homosexuality. Some of the men also indicates that the physical and sexual attraction and peer recognition as one of the indication of the male masculinity. Moreover, the sporting performance of the men has also been associated with male masculinity. In this case most of the adult men also indicated that they wished if they were given a chance they would work hard to gain the masculine body. Author also analyses the notion of the male heterosexuality with regard to the aging men. In this case the author found out that most of the older men associate male heterosexuality with the notion of ‘what I used to be’. Most of the old men interviewed in the article indicated that their current body status failed them in some ways.

References

Murray Drummond (2011): Reflections On The Archetypal Heterosexual

            Male Body, Australian Feminist Studies, 26:67, 103-117

• Analyse impacts of sociological factors on clients in community work and services
• Assignment 1
• Long term unemployed

1. Describe how this group experiences social exclusion and inequality.

• People who face long-term unemployment are exposed to many social exclusions and inequalities in the society. First, most of these people are excluded from the civil society. This is because most of these people are excluded from certain institutional mechanism. Second most of the people who face long-term unemployment also face exclusion from certain socials goods. This is where the society fails to recognize these people and provide them with particular goods such as better housing. This in turn makes these people to live in undesirable living conditions. Moreover, most of these people are also seen as unskilled and therefore most of the organizations fail to employ such people due to the fear that they may not be productive.

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• Developmental Psychology
• Introduction
•             Adolescence refers to the developmental period that involves transition from the childhood to adulthood. This stage may also be used to describe the teenage years that involves transition into puberty. However, various studies also indicate that the period can also extend beyond the teen years, it is therefore estimated that the adolescence period is between the age span of 10-24 years. The adolescence is stage is also further subdivided into various stages which include the early, middle, and the late adolescence stage. Some of the major physical developmental changes during the early adolescence include growth of body hair, increase in the height among other changes. In the late adolescence the young women are fully developed while most of the young men continue to gain height and weight.
• Cognitive development
•             During the early adolescence developmental stages an individual begins to develop the capacity for abstract thought. In addition, most of the adolescence in this early stage also becomes interested in the present issues more than future related issue. Moreover, in this early stages most of the adolescence expand their intellectual interest and develop a deeper moral thinking (Lerner & Steinberg, 2004). However, during the middle adolescent stage the individuals continue to expand the capacity for abstract thought. In addition during this middle stage individual also increase their moral reasoning and show a greater capacity for setting various goals. During the late adolescence period most of the individuals increase their ability to think ideas through. In addition, most of the adolescences in this period have an increased concern of the future events.
• Impact of the cognitive developmental stage to an individual
•             In order for the adolescence to undergo a successful cognitive developmental stage first, they must be encouraged to share their ideas and thought. Studies have shown that the adolescence must also be encouraged to think independently and develop their own ideas. In addition it is also important for the adolescence to be encouraged to engage in setting their goals. The cognitive development stage affects an individual in several ways. First, it affects the emotional processing in adolescence. In relation to this the adolescence face expression is one of the major sign that shows how individuals process their emotions. Most of the adolescence begins to worry about their appearance during this stage. This in turn leads to variation in their facial expressions. Some aspect such as the size of the nose, the eyes also contributes to the emotional expression in most of the adolescence.
•             Most of the adolescence also experiences a feeling of imaginary audience. In relation to this most of the adolescence develops a feeling that the thought and notion that other people are interested with their actions and behaviors. This may therefore affect the performance of an individual both in class and in the other places. Perspective thinking is also another cognitive developmental feature associated with the adolescence stage. In relation to this, most of the adolescence engage into the reasoning about others, how they feel, believe, and think. This perspective thinking help an individual to feely interact with other people since they are able to put into other people mental shoe and take their perspective.
•             Moral reasoning is another cognitive developmental change that has a considerable effect in the development of an individual. Various studies indicate that the individual in the adolescence stage reason according to his or her stage (Steinberg, Vandell, & Bornstein, 2011). However, by the age of 13 most of the adolescence begin to include the concept of mutual understanding in their reasoning. This is where the adolescence begins to have the view that what might be good to one person might not be good to another person. This development change therefore helps the adolescence to learn how to feely interact with other people. In addition, this moral reasoning ability helps the adolescence to maintain relationships. This is because most of the adolescence are able to imagine their multiple roles and understand how others reason. Poverty and economic resources are also known to affect some specific aspect of cognitive function. One of the major aspects that that is affected by the poverty and economic aspects of an individual include the memory capacity (vesque, 2011). In relation to this children form poor families in some case may have poor memories due to the poor economic condition they face. In addition, children from poor families may also be faced with chronic stress in their development. This chronic stress may affect the performance of adolescence in school.
•             Intellectual development is another aspect of cognitive development that individuals undergo during the adolescence. In relation to this an individual first undergoes componential intelligence where one is able to indentify various ways of solving problem. The individuals with well developed componential ability are able to effectively solve various life problems. In addition, during this developmental stage individuals are also able to develop their experiential intelligence. This implies that such individuals are able to cope and learn quickly new techniques. However, individuals with low or underdeveloped experiential intelligence during their adolescence stage are usually unable to cope and learn new techniques later in life.
•             Cognitive developmental stages may have an impact in the adolescence pregnancy and prenatal care. First, the concrete thinking during the early childhood may prevent a teen from understanding that her behavior is closely connected to the future health of the child. However, during the late adolescence stage the increased ability to understand the perspective of others allows the teenage to understand the various relationships between her behavior and that of the child.
• Impacts of psychosocial development
•             During the adolescence stage an individuals undergoes a period of indentifying their identity. In relation to this, an individual tries to indentify his or her integrity in regard to behavior and thinking. In addition, during this stage the adolescence encounter identity versus role confusion according to the Erikson psychosocial model. An individual is therefore confused as to whether to adopt his or her own ideas or to incorporate the idea of others (Swanson, Edward, & Spencer, 2010). Some adolescence may adopt negative identity. In relation to the adolescence mainly feels that their role in the society is not appreciated or what the society expects them to accomplish is quite unattainable. During developing self-identity one must first the beliefs that one has on some aspects such as, height, goals among others. Second one must also set self-esteem where one first evaluates how he or she feels about certain situations. However, development of low self-esteem may in turn lead adverse side effect on the life of an individual. This is because it may lead to the development of a feeling of depression, lack of energy to pursue certain things. In addition, low self-esteem may lead to one having unrealistic expectations as well as having may doubt about the future.
•             Various studies have shown that all adolescence must undergo behavioral development as they transform into adulthood. This in turn helps them to cope up with different aspects in the adult life. In relation to this, the adolescence must therefore learn to take certain risk in life, this help them to make some important decision in life. However, it has been established that some young people try out new ideas without considering the consequences of such ideas. This idea or decision in turn put many young people into certain threat that directly affect their life. For instance many young people engage into alcohol abuse therefore posing a great health risk to their bodies.
•             The adolescence psychosocial development can also be broadly be divided into two category the social bonding and the social interaction perspective (Rubin, Bukowski,& Laursen,2011). It has therefore been established that social bonding contributes positively to the both emotional and physical development of an individual. However, the social interaction mainly focuses on the negative characteristics of an individual. Social bonding is an important aspect in the life of adolescence since it has an impact in the life of an individual. This is evident from the research conducted on teens showed that lack of close friends by the age of 16 resulted to depression symptom at the age of 22(Rubin, Bukowski,& Laursen,2011). In another study it was established that lack of friends during grade 1 resulted in feeling of lonely later in life. Friends also play important roles as moderators in the adolescence stage. Various studies have shown that having a close friend does not only help in ensuring that an individual to cope up with life but also help to protect against negative emotional consequences. This there clearly shows that friends play an important role in the psychosocial development of adolescence.
•            Moreover the individual in this stage who receive proper encouragement during this stage usually emerge form this stage with a strong sense of self. In addition, the individuals who receive reinforcement through personal exploration also develop a strong sense of control and independence. However, those individuals during adolescence stage who remain unsure about their feeling and beliefs about issues usually feel insecure and confused about themselves. Another important psychosocial development that takes place during adolescence is the psychosocial competency. This is where the adolescence develops the ability to deal effectively with the demand and challenges of the real situation. Development of positive behavior
• help the adolescence to develop their psychosocial competency. However, failure to develop some of psychosocial competency skills leads to development of weak personality even in adulthood.
• Conclusion
•             From the above it is evident that the cognitive development plays an important role during the adolescence stage. The adolescence in this stage must therefore be encouraged to share their thought and ideas. This in turn help to ensure that the adolescence develop the right attitude toward life issues. Moreover, the adolescence must also be discouraged from worrying about their physical outlook. The psychosocial development also plays a critical role in the life and development of the adolescence. This is because certain aspects of psychosocial development such the psychosocial competency greatly influence the personality of an individual. Development of proper psychosocial competency should therefore be encouraged to ensure that an individual develop the right skills to him or her cope with adult life.
• References
• Lerner, R. M., & Steinberg, L. D. (2004). Handbook of adolescent psychology. Hoboken, N.J:       John Wiley &             Sons.
• Rubin, K. H., Bukowski, W. M., & Laursen, B. P. (2011). Handbook of peer interactions,             relationships, and groups. New York: Guilford.
• Steinberg, L. D., Vandell, D., & Bornstein, M. H. (2011). Development: Infancy through   adolescence.    Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.
• Swanson, D. P., Edwards, M. C., & Spencer, M. B. (2010). Adolescence: Development During a Global Era. Burlington: Elsevier Science.
• vesque, R. J. R. (2011). Encyclopedia of adolescence. New York: Springer.

• Social work profession support in the management
•             The social work professions support the management in several ways. First the National Association of Social Workers standard helps in performing case management procedures. These standards help in enhancing developmental, problem-solving ability in an organization. This in turn help in ensuring that there is teamwork in an organization. The standard outlined in this professional association also help in creating and promoting effective human resource operation systems.

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• What is the impact of the integrated care to the frail elderly in the community in Hong Kong?
• Table of Contents
• Abstract4
• Chapter1. 5
• Introduction. 5
• Chapter 2. 10
• Background. 10
• Chapter 3. 16
• Methodology. 16
• Explanatory phase. 17
• Search strategy inclusion and exclusion criteria. 18
• Electronic search. 19
• Critiquing methods. 20
• Ways of analyzing other people works. 21
• Critical analyses. 22
• Thematic analysis. 22
• Ethical issues. 23
• Chapter 4. 24
• Method. 24
• How the literature reviewed was done. 24
• Database used. 25
• Search terms. 25
• Critiquing framework. 27
• Data analysis method. 28
• Chapter 5. 28
• Reviews. 28
• Chapter 6. 39
• Analysis. 39
• Chapter 7. 47
• Discussion. 47
• What do they themes identified above mean. 47
• Implication of the practice. 48
• Using the findings in practice. 48
• Benefits of the research to patients, their families, professionals and theorganization. 49
• How themes that emerged relates to the background. 50
• Need for further research. 50
• Ethical implications of the study. 51
• Limitation of the study. 51
• What I have leant regarding the topic. 52
• Chapter 8. 53
• Conclusion. 53
• Recommendation. 54
• Reference
• . 56
•             Hong Kong is one of the cities is faced with a considerable high number of aging populations. This paper analysis how integrated care can be used to help solve some of the problems facing the frail elderly in the society. The background of this research paper indicates that the elderly people in Hong Kong are faced with various problems mainly related to the plans of the government to upgrade the city. This paper adopts the literature review as the main methodology in order to analyze the topic. In relation to this the paper uses the critical appraisal and thematic analysis in order the content of various article analyzed. Various inclusion and exclusion criteria search criteria were included in the methodology to help determine the materials to be included in the study.
•             The findings of the research indicated that with the increase of frail elderly persons in the society, remain vulnerable especially to health problems. Lack of financial support is another aspect evident from the research whereby the frail elderly are not in a position to access high quality services due to lack of enough funds and these services are expensive for them. Majority of the articles reviewed are proposing that the government should intervene to ensure that the frail elderly have access to high quality services. The recommendation for the research is that more integrated care management facilities need to be established in the community in order to ensure that the elderly are transferred to these facilities to get quality services. The care managers as well as nurses facilitating care management to the elderly also need to be trained to ensure that they deliver quality services.

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• Unit 1
• Proposal topic: Gender differences in adolescent development
•             The research aims at establishing the various gender characteristics that distinguishes the boys and girls and during adolescence development. In relation to this the research aims at establishing the various ways to deal with the problems associated with the gender difference during adolescence development. The research paper will also aim at establishing the type of genders that has the highest moral values in the society.

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• Joint versus Separate Preference Reversal
•             Both joint and separate reversals refer to how different people tend to control their emotions (List, 2006). Joint preference reversal refers to making of decisions on several issues at the same time. In joint evaluation one can make many decisions and evaluate them simultaneously. While separate reversal refers to making of decisions one at a time. In joint evaluation, a person can reduce emotions while making decisions mostly on public actions. Joint reversal is a better form of decision-making strategy because one gets the time to analysis about something before taking action (List, 2006).

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• Agriculture and Environment
• #1
•             The reason why humans are not harmed by pesticides is that they can be able to avoid the harmful effects associated with many of the pesticides by simply avoiding direct exposure to them (Sizer, Frances, Piché, and Whitney 496).

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