Conducting Research with Human Participants in an Ethical Fashion

Defining Ethics

 Ethical conduct implies that one has to carry out activities appropriately. Human research entails conducting research that touches on the lives of people. The main aim of conducting research is to better the lives of people. Human research might involve high risks hence there is a high possibility that things might go wrong (Harriss, & Atkinson, 2015). In spite of one's intentions, planning, and care, sometimes the research might do more harm than good. Thus, research conduct should incorporate values such as self-respect, self-sufficiency, and discretion. These ethical considerations normally translate into intricate regulatory systems that enable researchers to protect the lives of the human participants. Most of the time, research that uses human participants, is carried out for the sole purpose of methodically gathering and evaluating data from where the researchers can draw out conclusive evidence.

 Before carrying out research where humans are participants, a researcher has to physically and psychologically reduce the risks involved. Also, the researcher has to assure the human participants are fully aware of the dangers. Whenever a human participant comes into contact with a dangerous research aspect, the researcher must minimize the risk so that no extreme harm can be done to the human participant (Madary, & Metzinger, 2016). Also, obtaining informed consent from the participants is necessary. Informed consent pertains to revealing the research aim, research duration, and another research category. Also, the anticipated dangers are to be made clear and distinct to the human participants. Also, confidential protocols tied to the research are to be recorded as follows- in case something goes wrong, the human participants are to be compensated heavily, human participants have a right to walk away from the research.

Potential Harm to Participants

 The first thing that researchers should do whenever harm comes to the human participants is respecting human dignity. Human dignity forces the researchers to safeguard and prioritize their participants’ independence while at the same time ensuring that each human participant is fully aware of the danger involved in the research. Autonomy means that human participants can make decisions without coercion from researchers. To guarantee that there is autonomy, human participants should have access to the self-determination aspects of the research (Navalta, Stone, & Lyons, 2019). In other words, human participants have a right to agree or disagree with the researchers. Simply put, nothing should be forced on human participants, they should take part in the research according to their free will and in the end, make up more than one side of the story that is conjoined with the findings of the research.

Measures the Researcher Can Take To Reduce Risk

 Risk assessment is to be carried out before the human participants engage in the research. Risks assessment is perceived as the lens via which the researcher can forestall the research impact. Therefore, how the researchers manage risks is intensely affected by the social and political environment. For instance, in each activity, the researcher needs to perform a risk assessment to determine the amount of risk involved in that particular activity.  Similarly, the human participants have to be informed of the potential involved in each activity and ways of minimizing the potential risk involved in certain activities (Ko, Latoza, & Burnett, 2015). This way, one has a better chance of coming to terms with the research and its effects on the human participants. Also, some risks can occur as a result of negligence from the human participants themselves. In case human participants are responsible for the dangers, the researchers have a right to legal protection. Both the researchers and human participants have a role to play in the prevention of harm. Hence the roles should be designate accordingly for the sake of reducing risks involved in the research.

Informed Consent

 Informed consent is a mechanism that allows the researcher to educate the human participant on the risks and remunerations of taking part in the research. Human participants should be competent enough to make a conscious and voluntary choice on whether to take part in the research or avoid it completely. Informed consent is legal and ethical hence most researchers have to do everything in their power to ensure that all the things are done according to legal jurisdictions (Kosinski et al., 2015). Implied as a way of evaluating a human participant’s comprehension, informed consent requires the researcher to offer recommendations and document the entire process. Informed consent is somehow more accurate than other mechanisms and gives the researcher to right to refuse or accept taking part in the research. For example, the research has to inform the participants on the nature of the research, the advantages and disadvantages of taking part in the research, and recommended options. Also, the researcher is to assess the human participant's understanding of the entire situation. Moreover, the entire process must be documented for the sake of protecting the interests of the human participants. The researcher should protect the people's rights and choices.

References

Harriss, D. J., & Atkinson, G. (2015). Ethical standards in sport and exercise science research: 2016 update. International journal of sports medicine, 36(14), 1121-1124.

Madary, M., & Metzinger, T. K. (2016). Real virtuality: a code of ethical conduct. Recommendations for good scientific practice and the consumers of VR-technology. Frontiers in Robotics and AI, 3, 3.

Navalta, J. W., Stone, W. J., & Lyons, S. (2019). Ethical issues relating to scientific discovery in exercise science. International Journal of Exercise Science, 12(1), 1.

Ko, A. J., Latoza, T. D., & Burnett, M. M. (2015). A practical guide to controlled experiments of software engineering tools with human participants. Empirical Software Engineering, 20(1), 110-141.

Kosinski, M., Matz, S. C., Gosling, S. D., Popov, V., & Stillwell, D. (2015). Facebook as a research tool for the social sciences: Opportunities, challenges, ethical considerations, and practical guidelines. American Psychologist, 70(6), 543.

Appraisal of the Article “The Effect of a Quiet Environment on the Comfort of Post-Operative Infants and Young Children”

This is the second part of the appraisal of the article “The Effect of a Quiet Environment on the Comfort of Post-Operative Infants and Young Children,” to identify the quality based on aspects that were not addressed in the first section. This section would also figure out the strengths and weaknesses of the paper as well as its applicability in today’s world. We are not forgetting that this quantitative paper was authored by Peggy et al. (2019). This essay presents a critique on the nature of the population, sampling methods used, and the setting of the sample population. Also, in this critique, we would review the legal principles and ethical principles used in the research. This review also incorporates a description of the instruments used to measure the study variables as well as their reliability and validity, their scale of precision and accuracy. More so, in this essay, we would present the procedures used in the collection of data for the study and statistical procedures used in the description of the statistical data. Additionally, in this part two, we will also review the results and how they relate with the hypothesis or the question of the study so that we can highlight at least a strength or a weakness identified in the research.

Population, Sample, and Setting

In quantitative research, a population and sample are terminologies used to explain the participants used in research. In nursing research papers the participants are primarily the number of patients that are incorporated or that take part during the process of data collection. Peggy and colleagues in the bid to address the effect of a quiet environment on the comfort of post-operative infants and young children give us a hint on the type of population that the research targets (MacKay, 2019). We are sure that the study should entirely address the issues interrelated to infants and young children. However, in research, the use of the whole population is not possible as use of the whole population is very expensive and time-consuming, therefore in most research, a representation of the population is selected which is referred to as a sample.

In this study, a sample of 33 subjects was used, for inclusion in the sample a subject was supposed to meet the following three criteria. The first criteria were age between births to six years, secondly, to be admitted to hospital for surgical procedure between 2012 November to 2014 November, and lastly, with either Spanish- or English-speaking parents. In order to access the families that met the criteria, members of their care team approached them to request them to participate in the study (Moser, & Korstjens, 2018). We are not told on any measure of the adequacy of the sample size used, similarly, the criterion was biased on patients whose parents could speak Spanish and English leaving other language dimensions outside. Nevertheless, the study might have been successful as participants were grouped into two, those with odd numbers assigned to a quiet room and those with even numbers as the control group. Unfortunately, there is no information stating how the sample size was determined, neither the acceptance nor refusal rates. However, the paper being on nursing practice we can state that hospital setting is appropriate for the study.

Legal & Ethical Issues

In research, ethical and legal considerations are always at the forefront. This is primarily aimed at approving the study as well as the human rights and dignity related to sharing of personal information are adhered to. In this research paper, the researchers used a vulnerable group of participants who are admitted for surgical practice in the hospital and parents who were either Spanish or English speakers. We, therefore, expect that the study was approved before publishing, by a nurse related body that governs research exercise (Harriss, MacSween, & Atkinson, 2017). However, it is unfortunate that the authors did not present any information on a body that took charge of approving the credibility of this research paper. In the sample section, we get some information on participation that shows some value and respect to human dignity, it is indicated that after the families had met the criteria of inclusion they were asked to participate in the study. After they agreed they were consented by each member of each research team and assigned a study group. Additionally, they were also informed on the behaviors that were expected in each room and activities that were not to be practiced so that before participation each participant would be aware of any potential harm that might result from participation. In this research we are told that post-operative patients were chosen due to their anticipated pain and pain relief needs, this group can be categorized as a vulnerable group even though the authors did not present any additional terms or practices that can be useful in safeguarding their safety. Researchers have a mandate to ensure that all the human virtues and morals that safeguard humanity are kept to standards before and during engagement in research this one of the critical aspects that determines the quality of a paper.

Measurement

Robust quantitative research needs to portray adequate usage of instruments in the measure of variables presented in the research. It is also essential to identify the levels of measurements achieved by each variable. The use of these scales is essential in determining the reliability and validity of the study. In this paper, various variables have been represented which belong to various scales of measurements. In the previous discussion, we had discussed various variables and instruments used to measure the same variables. Some of these variables that we had presented included noise, light, and demographic variables which include age, gender, race, and ethnicity. The latter demographic variables can either be measured using, interval, nominal, interval, and ratio levels of measurements (Kim, Mallory, & Valerio, 2020). Alternatively, the extraneous variables that are light and noise can be measured using lux and sound meter respectively. Despite having the following basic information, in the entire paper, there is no effort discovered to delineate these variables in their subsequent scales of measurements. More so, we do not have any evidence of the list of questions whether on the methodology section or on the appendix showing the questions that were used in the collection of data, therefore, it is not possible to evaluate the reliability and the validity of the questions and the accuracy of the measurements used. Generally, in this research, it would be much difficult to examine the accuracy and validity of past researches using the current one as there is no evidence in the literature review of scales presented to base a strong discussion on the variables.

Data Collection

These are methods or techniques used in research to gather data or information related to the topic of study. Data collection methods can either be from primary or secondary sources, however, for quantitative research, it would be much reliable if the data collection process is done using the primary methods (Mkandawire, 2019). In this study, the process of data collection used primary methods where data was collected for 24 hours and recorded on tables. To become more specific the young children in the Post-Anesthesia Care Unit were used, in this method a FLACC assessment was performed and data obtained was recorded by the nurse. The table on the FLACC Behaviour scale recorded three noise levels in the room (Crellin, et al., 2018). Another table was presented where the nurses assessed the FLACC score, sound level, and LTL L average, slow maximum, narcotic allergies, non-narcotic allergies, and non-pharm strategies. All the latter listed assessments were carried out at an interval of 4 hours, from the period of arrival to a period of 24 hours. The FLACC scale is used to measure pain in non-verbal children, internationally. Based on this instrument used we are sure that the data collected was valid and reliable as internal consistency was maintained, in this research, we are told that the nurses were the data collectors we, therefore, expect that the data they generated was accurate and can be relied on.

Data Analysis

Data analysis procedures in statistical analysis are a procedure that is used to assess the data collected to get a meaning from it and establish its applicability. The process of data analysis is guided by the type of research questions, the purpose, and the hypothesis to be answered. The primary purpose of carrying out this research was to investigate the effect of a quiet environment on children's pain levels. Peggy and colleagues expected that once they create a quiet environment for patients the result would be an increase in the comfort levels and decrease in pain, which would show a low FLACC score when compared to other typical rooms. In order to determine the minimum sample size, a multiple regression was performed in the analysis. Some other procedures were also performed in the analysis, in this research a study sample of 100 was the target as it would help ensure a 95% confidence interval (p < 0.05), the alpha level. For this case, the most desirable effect size was 0.2, with 12 predictors and a statistical level of 0.8. In the bid to establish the relationships between the outcome variables an investigation was carried out using the Pearson Chi-square, ANOVA, and the corresponding p-value. Additionally, to analyze the effect of a quiet room on pain scores a mixed model logistic regression was used.

Based on the hypothesis, purpose, and study hypothesis, we can evaluate the success or appropriateness of the data analysis procedures used. The authors aimed at examining the impact of quiet rooms on hospitalized patients, they stated a hypothesis that there is no significant difference in comfort levels noted between the experimental and control groups. The study focused on data from both the experimental and control groups using various statistical procedures such as regression, Pearson Chi-square, ANOVA, and the corresponding p-value, and a mixed model logistic regression (Mertens, Pugliese, & Recker, 2017). These procedures were used to develop descriptive statistics, which provides statistical data on the results from the study variables, which can be used to determine the levels of significance and thus the capability to either reject or accept the null hypothesis. It is from this data that readers can confidently justify where the quiet environment affects the comfort of children in terms of reducing pain.

Additionally, the researchers use clear tables that concisely present the data analysis results. However, they were reluctant to address the strategies that would be used in the management of missing data. In the analysis the authors opted for a sample of 100 participants who would make it possible in ensuring a 95% confidence interval and thus a significant level, alpha p < 0.05 (Dai, et al., 2020). The descriptive statistics for the demographic variables, means, standard deviations, and t-tests, as well as evaluation of Non-Narcotic used between the intervention groups, were presented in tables making visualization of the results easy. The data in the table is presented as numerical percentages for the demographic data, while the measures of central tendencies are presented as continuous numbers with their relative position from the p-value. Also, the Non-Narcotic difference between the two study groups is illustrated as whole numbers and percentages from which the p-value can be established. From the data presented in the tables above the main objective is to come up with a p-value from where we can base our significance test.

Researcher Interpretation of Findings

From the study conducted by the authors of this article of study various results were obtained. Despite the expectation that a sample size of 100, only 33 patients who met the criteria were recruited for the study. Based on the study purpose, questions and hypothesis, the study should focus on the two study groups and the effects of the conditions presented on the comfort of patients. It was recorded that an average sound level for both groups was 57.98 (+/- 12.95) dB, with the maximum noise at 97.9 dB, as recorded in the control room. Although the two environments did not vary in average sound levels, the observed LTL-L average in the quiet room was lower than the control group (p=0.0015). The findings from the FLACC scores revealed that there is no significant difference in the reported pain and comfort levels between the experimental and control groups (MacKay, 2019). Moreover, it was found that overall, there is no significant correlation between dB readings and FLACC scale at the time of assessment (p = 0.0789, p = 0.2791).  In the quiet room, there was a weak significance showing a weak correlation between actual dB level and the FLACC scale at the time of assessment (p = 0.2526, p = 0.0121). Additionally, the use of narcotics did not differ significantly between the experimental and the control group (p = 0.1207), neither did the non-narcotics between the same groups (p = 0.4641).

From the findings, it is clear that there is no significant correlation in comfort level between the comfort levels between the two groups. However, it was expected that creating a quiet environment would promote high levels of comfort for the patients which was not the case. The authors thought that creating an environment with few stimuli would create a more comfortable environment that would create more comfort for patients and thus get quick relief of pain. These findings are just are a prover to the past researches carried that reveals the expected outcomes when the hospital environments are modified, most of the background highlighted that a quiet environment would improve patients outcomes. However, the research was successful in answering the research questions and hypothesis we can state that the research was only limited to young children and post-operative pains. The research would have been more successful if it addressed a broader population and a wide variety of other acute infections that are associated with young children such as malaria and polio. Besides, the authors did not highlight any potential threats or present any generalizations about the population of the study.

Overall Evaluation of the Study

This study was successful in examining the problem of the study, as well as answering the research questions. In order to answer the latter questions, researchers used background articles that were mainly focused on the study topic, using variables and terms that revolved around the quiet environment, patient’s comfort, noise, infants, children, and post-operative pain (MacKay, 2019). These articles provided information on past results that were conducted to answer the question of comfort in the hospital environment. The methods used in data collection and analysis, sampling, analysis, and findings are comprehensive and systematic and successful in addressing quantitative research. More importantly, the findings clearly, present the research findings and answer to the research question and statistical information that can be used to justify the hypothesis and whether to accept or reject it (MacKay, 2019). However, the shortcomings of this research are that the authors did not present the software and tools that were used in generating the descriptive statistics, which is important to readers to identify the validity and reliability of the software. Now that the sample size is small, below 100, we cannot put much trust in the result therefore, future researchers should focus on carrying out researches from a much more representative sample. The results obtained, therefore, are not suitable for use in practice, thus of little relevance for use in future researches.

References

Crellin, D. J., Harrison, D., Santamaria, N., Huque, H., & Babl, F. E. (2018). The psychometric properties of the FLACC scale used to assess procedural pain. The Journal of Pain, 19(8), 862-872.

Dai, B., Nachum, O., Chow, Y., Li, L., Szepesvari, C., & Schuurmans, D. (2020). Coindice: Off-policy confidence interval estimation. Advances in neural information processing systems, 33.

Harriss, D., MacSween, A., & Atkinson, G. (2017). Standards for ethics in sport and exercise science research: 2018 update. International journal of sports medicine.

Kim, M., Mallory, C., & Valerio, T. (2020). Statistics for evidence-based practice in nursing. Jones & Bartlett Publishers.

MacKay, P. (2019). The Effect of a Quiet Environment on the Comfort of Post-Operative Infants and Young Children. Pediatric Nursing, 45(5).

Mertens, W., Pugliese, A., & Recker, J. (2017). Quantitative data analysis. A companion.

Mkandawire, S. B. (2019). Selected Common Methods and Tools for Data Collection in Research. Selected Readings in Education, 2, 143-153.

Moser, A., & Korstjens, I. (2018). Series: Practical guidance to qualitative research. Part 3: Sampling, data collection and analysis. European Journal of General Practice, 24(1), 9-18.

Ambiguity in Children and Young People Agency

There are pieces of evidence on empirical research that show the experiences of survival and coping with violence and adversities in the eastern DRC. These latter researches were based on international rights-based on child protection approaches and the actual lives lived by children in eastern DRC. According to Seymour, there was a need to challenge the child protection stakeholders, this challenge would be purposeful in examining the actors’ knowledge on structural violence and socio-economic adversities (Seymour 2012, p.373). The latter knowledge or understanding would help develop relevant interventions addressing the ambiguous problems, which later would improve the outcomes for the children living under protracted violence.

Further, addressing the critical perspectives based on a social intervention based on children and youth living in Africa and how they result in ambiguous agencies. In support of Seymour’s ambiguous agencies on children (Bordanoro and Payne 2012) presents the whole African perspective on children and youth, as they have been victims or perpetrators and thus a major target by the government security policies (Bordanoro and Payne, 2012, p.365). These policies also were at developing international agencies to bring about social interventions, the type of agency developed is good enough if it addresses the cultural, social, and historical issues on the youth and children.

Nevertheless, (Tomanović 2012) presents an interplay between the ideal structure and agency on young people based on social biographies. In this presentation, he addresses the process that can be used to shape social biographies based on typology and present patterns. After carrying out qualitative research on biographical data that incorporated the children belonging to the family of workers and professionals from two Belgrade neighborhoods, several agencies emerged (Tomanović 2012, p.605). The latter agencies were related to structural constraints or opportunities, which led to inequalities during adulthood transition. There is a need, therefore, to develop different types of agencies that address the biographies of the young children based on the family resources and habitus.

Bibliography

Bordanoro, L.I. and Payne, R. (2012) ‘Ambiguous agency: Critical perspectives on social interventions with children and youth in Africa’. Children’s Geographies 10 (4) 365-372.

Seymour C. (2012) Ambiguous agencies: coping and survival in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. Children&#39;s Geographies 10: 373-384

Tomanović, S. (2012) ’Agency in the social biographies of young people in Belgrade’. Journal of Youth Studies 15 (5): 605-620.

Article Review on Journal of Personality and Personality Disorders

Introduction

This is an article review paper based on empirical research. In the bid to research personality disorders (PD) I have decided to use an article titled “Validation of the DSM–5 Alternative Model Personality Disorder Diagnoses in Turkey, Part 1: LEAD Validity and Reliability of the Personality Functioning Ratings,” authored by Dereboy and colleagues (2018). The latter authors of this article belong to the Department of Psychiatry, “Adnan Menderes Universitesi Tip Fakultesi, and Aydin, Turkey.” This is evidence that the research paper is valid to address personality disorders. Additionally, this paper is peer-reviewed as it was first presented on 8 August 2017, and reviewed or revised on 23 November 2017, this makes it applicable for this review, more so it is within the 7-year range indicated in the instructions.

The purpose of this study conducted by these scholars was aimed at addressing the longitudinal, expert, all data (LEAD) validity and reliability of the personality functioning ratings based on Turkey. The reason to carry this research was “essential in assessing Criterion A for the entire DSM-5 alternative model for personality disorder (AMPD) diagnosis.” This research followed after the lack of provision in the diagnostic and statistical manual for mental disorders in the fourth edition in assessing the severity of impairments as a result of personality disorders (Dereboy, Dereboy, & Eskin, 2018). The authors sought to develop recent research that would include two different approaches of personality entitled as “Diagnostic Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders,” (DSM-5), the fifth edition. For this edition, the research would incorporate identity and self-direction, which are the attributes of self-functioning as well as empathy and intimacy which are the components attributed to interpersonal functioning.

According to various reports sourced from surveys on personality and personality disorders work from clinicians across North America supports the validity and utility of the alternative diagnostic strategies. Various researches have been conducted, for instance by Morey and Skodol aimed at investigating the use of alternative diagnostic strategies that could be applied to rate diagnostic rules. The latter rules had utility in stipulating the presence of impairment in any of the two components for PD diagnosis, using categorical components. More precisely, this paper hypothesized the psychometric performance of the two alternative requirements as it would sum up the dimensional component ratings that would either sum the least moderately impaired components to either total or surpass the maximum threshold.

Methods

In order to succeed in this study, the researchers deployed a group of 120 participants, of this group 80 were female while 4 were male. Also in this list of psychiatric patients, 78 were out-patients while 42 were in-patients, whose age ranged between 16 to 63 years. From the same group, 51 of them were single, 53 were married and the rest 16 had separated either by divorce or widowed. The group was also described in terms of occupations only 39 were employed, 31 categorized as housewives, 26 still studying, 13 found to be unemployed and only 11 had retired. Based on socio-economic characteristics of the respondents 30 belonged to the high class and 2 were from a very high social class, 71 were of medium class, 9 poor, and 6 very poor (Dereboy, Dereboy, & Eskin, 2018). Most importantly, on the principle diagnosis already listed in the charts in the routine assessment 70 had already been diagnosed for mood disorders 47 with anxiety disorders, while 6 with somatoform disorders.

After the details on the respondents, various tests were done, using various instruments. One of the instruments was used to determine the level of personality functioning scale, the Turkish version, which provided anchors to the rates of impairments in components of self-functioning and interpersonal functioning using a 5-point scale, zero being minimal and 4- extreme. Additionally, structure interviews were also sought on DSM-III_R, Axis II, where patients would conduct a self-reporting to report either absence or presence of PD symptoms, the participants would respond to 12-forced choice questions of a screening instrument, from where they could be now rated concerning the 102 diagnostic criteria. The previously stated instruments were then followed by familiarization of the criteria for assessment by conduction open LPFS trait ratings, which incorporated the in- and out-patients who were literate to participate in filling informed consent forms and self-reporting instrument to participate in the study, excluding the illiterate, those with mental retardation, or psychotic disorders.

The participants were evaluated by an intake clinician and SCID-II ratings were performed. The raters had access to the patient’s charts, and also took part in interviewing the participants and informants seeking information useful in rating personality functioning and traits on PD symptoms. Another set of individual ratings were also subjected to validity and reliability analyses. After the collection of the individual ratings analysis and disclosure of the DSM-III-R and DSM-5 individuals were now capable to use the available longitudinal data to determine the LEAD diagnoses panel that would help attain maximum diagnostic efficiency and thus making informed and sound decisions. The latter decisions would be useful to determine whether individual personality is disordered; this can be achieved by evaluation of the variables, which can be defined, which are either independent or dependent. These variables were used to perform various statistical analyses, aimed at gauging the agreement levels between PD diagnosis by the individual clinicians and the LEAD panel. These variables include self-direction, intimacy, empathy, LPFS score, based on the 120 participants.

Results

The purpose of this study was to address the distribution, diagnostic utility, and reliability of the two summary scores: “the LPFS total representing the sum dimensional component rating and the LPFS composite representing the sum of components at least moderately impaired.” From table 1 the component ratings for the first and the second set of data revealed that the second data tends to slightly higher than the first one, which is comparably a greater impairment in the personality functioning of the involved participants. The CIs means overlap revealing that there is no significant difference between the two rating sets. Besides, based on the validity of PD ratings against LEAD diagnoses, the ROC analysis reveals that both LPFS composite seemed convenient to predict LEAD diagnoses (Dereboy, Dereboy, & Eskin, 2018). Also, the table reveals that when employed with optimal cutoffs with a score of 2 and LPFS value of 6, the summary score works with equal accuracy when differentiating subjects with LEAD diagnoses from those without. The LPFS composite matches closely with the DSM-5 AMPD criteria requirement to manifest personality functioning.

Additionally, the results on the validity of individual clinicians’ diagnosis against LEAD diagnosis reveal that the accuracy of intake of diagnostic decisions improved considerably as they gained experience in rating the LPFS and SCID-II. Also, the AMPD evaluations portrayed that stability of the accuracy in DSM-5 overlapped regardless of the raters’ perception about the people being rated. In the bid to explore the validity of LPFS as a tool to gauge the severity of the personality pathology, following a correlation computation on LPFS individual components and summary scores with a sum of current PD symptoms and SCID-II ratings, the results on the correlation between the two were mostly medium for the entire sample, small to medium for similar conditions and medium to strong for different rater condition. Thus the improvement of LPFS and SCI-II ratings could be increased by increasing both their convergence and creating a strong association with each other. Lastly, the internal test-retest reliability of the LPFS score revealed that the sample reliability estimates were in good or questionable limits, lower limits of the CIs getting to unacceptable levels, while population estimates for LPFS summary score remaining in safe ranges.

Discussion

Based on the research above, the application of the diagnostic criterion validity matches experts’ gauges. From the observation and study results, it is true that coders are capable of performing accurate decisions and thus make considerable improvement in LEAD validity on PD through whichever criteria as they gained experience in rating the SCID-II and LPFS throughout the study (Dereboy, Dereboy, & Eskin, 2018). More so, the LPFS total and composite scores seem equally useful in making valid decisions based on Criterion A of the AMPD, apart from which LPFS would assess global severity of PD as well, revealing a significant and strong correlation between LPFS components and summary score with the sum of SCID-II PD symptoms. The results revealed in this study were consistent with minor variations making it satisfactory and reliable in reporting LPFS total on clinical samples and unprecedented AMPD literature, thus supporting the reliability of Criterion A decisions based on the diagnostic rule that requires two or more impaired components.

References

Dereboy, F., Dereboy, Ç., & Eskin, M. (2018). Validation of the DSM–5 alternative model personality disorder diagnoses in Turkey, Part 1: LEAD validity and reliability of the personality functioning ratings. Journal of personality assessment, 100(6), 603-611.

Body Image

Body image is an intricate subject matter that entirely depends on societal and personal perception. In definitive terms body image refers to someone's perception of their bodily self and the moods and judgments whether negative or positive that emerge from this perception.  In the current society, four elements define body image. First, the personal view of one's body image. Personal opinion is not always accurate hence not always a reliable pointer. For instance, one might consider himself or herself as overweight even if it's not so (Saiphoo, & Vahedi, 2019).  The second aspect of body image is the feelings one portrays towards their body image. How a person feels about his or her body image will dictate the levels of satisfaction experienced. For example, the shape of the nose and other body parts shape the attitude one has toward their body image. Thirdly, the thoughts one has about the body goes ahead to influence the body image. For example, some people tend to think that they will feel better if they become thin.

Against this background, it is evident that body image plays a central role in society and this is the main reason people are supposed to champion a positive body image. Whenever one accepts or come to terms with his or her body image, they appreciate their body more often. Positive body image nurtures a resilient personality hence making it hard for one to develop an eating disorder (Saiphoo, & Vahedi, 2019). More so, an effectual eating disorder inhibition program applies body positivity approaches as a way of improving the self-esteem and body image of its members. Also, the balance strategy of bodily activities and nourishment has been proven to improve body positivity among numerous people.

 Self-esteem influences how individuals perceive themselves and usually penetrates and direct more than one element of life hence participating in the general happiness welfare of a person. Also, self-acceptance can make a person attain body comfortability and contentment due to less pressure that emerges from seeking validation from the outside world. Thus, one becomes more realistic and does not depend on validation from the media and other societal norms. One of the most basic sources of body image distortion and discontent are the negative moods and judgments one has towards their own body. Body discontent is an internal mechanism but numerous external factors impact it. For example friends, relatives, and even the work space can play a role in shaping body image discontent. The interaction of these external factors sometimes makes people eating disorders. Most of the time, body image leads to eating disorders because the intake of food is tied to how one perceives body image. Eating disorders are complex issues that rely on health and psychological diagnosis. The chance of coming up with more than one underlying reason causing eating disorders is difficult but a necessity in long run.

 Eating disorders and body image are tied together and are often related. Body image anguish is normally an indication of an eating disorder.  Even though not all people suffering from an eating disorder have a body image problem. However, most people with body image challenges suffer from eating disorders. The connection between an eating disorder and body image depends on how perceive their own body. For example, people with bulimia eat plenty of food to improve their body image. According to scientific investigation, 60% of adolescents do not like their body hence seek solace in either starving excessively eating. Sometimes people over-analyze their body which in turn leads to dissatisfaction. Subsequently, one's perception of the body is often impacted by physique and weight. In turn, people tend to be more sensitive and reprehensive of their bodily appearance. Gradually people start engaging in activities that change their body image. One of the consequences of trying to change body image is that it leads to extreme results such as anorexia or even bulimia.

References

Saiphoo, A. N., & Vahedi, Z. (2019). A meta-analytic review of the relationship between social media use and body image disturbance. Computers in human behavior, 101, 259-275.

Marengo, D., Longobardi, C., Fabris, M. A., & Settanni, M. (2018). Highly-visual social media and internalizing symptoms in adolescence: The mediating role of body image concerns. Computers in Human Behavior, 82, 63-69.

Stereotype Inoculation

Primary Article Review

Nilanjana Daspgupta's stereotype inoculation ideal coalesces vital hypothesis on individuality, belonging, and accomplishment to propose that in-group associates could also be a communal inoculation from the destructive nature of stereotypes. The stereotypes inoculation concept summarizes numerous theories from past researches while also reflecting on the impact stereotypes have on immediate achievements, social life, effectiveness, pretension emotions, and environmental fits (Dasgupta, 2011). These impacts are estimated to be primary in social psychological fields. The most relevant issue relies on personal free will. For instance, people think that they have a choice to pick between two career choices, however, in an actual sense, they are constrained and limited to their surroundings and have to gravitate toward certain social norms.

 In this particular article, the author tries to ascertain that free choice is termed to be so because of the choices one has at his or her disposal. However, the choices are shaped based on societal norms such as the environment. The environment contains success and other signals which can tell if one has succeeded or failed on any endeavor he or she intends to undertake. The more one interacts with a certain subject matter, the greater his or her chances to constrain his or her free will based on certain societal norms (Dasgupta, 2011). Most people constrain their expectations due to norms set up through society. Therefore, people are most likely to be associated with domains that are deemed successful. At the end of the day, people align themselves to in-group stereotypes. Also, the demographic arrangement of attainment is usually situational and it is meant to trigger in-group stereotypes such as the definition of scarce and plenty. The chance of coming to terms with more than one way of tackling life relies on solid and reliable facts that one decided to deem as possible and reachable. For the sake of avoiding deviant behavior. It is vital to take note that one's interests and perceptions are shaped and influence by stereotypical cues, only a few people might be aware of this fact. However, even if people are not aware of the underlying factors shaping their ambitions stereotypes are meant to impact an individual’s self-concept. Coming to terms with self-concept is one of the most profound issues that was discussed in the article as it makes the researches more visible and relevant to the main subject matter under discussion (Dasgupta, 2011). Hence, the author was forced to take into consideration elements that might take away the constraints and improve personal liberty while pursuing academic and specialized career paths that are contradicted in stereotypical societies. The confrontation between liberty and the constraints placed by stereotypical cues depends on how a person addresses the question at a personal level. For instance one of the most primary issues which enhance stereotypical cues is the sense of belonging one must feel whenever they are in certain social groups. It is innate for humans to feel like they belonging. The sense of belonging is where stereotypes build up and take precedence over the life of people. Whenever people feel that they are different or belong to a lesser social group, then they might find it weird hence initiating a set of steps that might make them belong to a certain group of individuals. In this particular context, people tend to lean toward the majority because the majority dictates the rate of success for the entire society.

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Issues Raised In the Commentary

 One of the main issues raised in the commentary is the applause or strengths of the stereotype inoculation. In societal psychology, the stereotype is fixed and interpreted as a general belief. The general belief is often tied to a specific group of people. Through stereotypical views, a group of people will have similar traits hence generalized into one group. In terms of the applause issues, the authors of the commentary do not dispute on stereotype inoculation arguments made. In simpler terms, they agree that preferences are influenced through societal, identity, a sense of belonging (Aronson, & McGlone, 2011). Besides, subtle cues are an alternative form of deliberate discrimination as a way of hindering women and other minorities into vital social circles. Dasgupta focused on identifying the illusion preference present. People might think that they are at liberty to choose but the choices at their disposal are restrained to stereotypical definitions. For instance, the perception that one career path is better than another might not seem so because of the stereotypical cues formed around one career path over another. Of environmental cues regularly and conclusively influence personal choices, then, the authority to choose is not in the hands of an individual. For the sake of coming to terms with aspects the society has to offer to individuals, people have to make a choice based on preferable societal norms and stereotypes. Once one has more than one choice, he or she has to make decisions according to conditions dictated in the surrounding.

In situations where there are numerous disparities, it is commonplace for people to deny that there is discrimination. However, research reveals that the low number of women in the male-dominated profession is not a result of bias but due to environmental cues that discourage women from pursuing difficult mathematics and engineering subject matter (Aronson, & McGlone, 2011). Thus, most people are unaware of the underlying situational aspects which impact their decision-making process hence choices cannot be reliable in the evaluation of certain psychological factors. Things that people perceive as liberty turn out to be an illusion due to the societal cues which tie people to the final decision. The rationality and illusion of choice are driven by stereotypical cues tied to the issue at hand. For example, people usually want to associate with the majority so that they can gain a sense of belonging from the rest of society. More so, the social context under which people make their decisions goes a long way to dictate the final choice one makes (Aronson, & McGlone, 2011). Hence, the rationality and intentionality of choices are mere constructions and do not have an impact on personal choices. Besides, the authors claim that social psychology needs to refine the concept of stereotype inoculation due to its connection to more than one social setting. In situations where men are more than women, some women might choose to continue with their education while others pursue a field known for their feminine nature. All in all, none of the two groups will fully have access to the underlying factors which influence their decision-making process.

 Another issue highlighted in the commentary is the inoculation metaphor which states that the use of inoculation metaphor as applied by the author is incorrect. This is because the usage of inoculation creates predictive situations. For the sake of coming to terms with the author’s sentiments, in the medical context, inoculation includes the introduction of a weak virus into the human body (Aronson, & McGlone, 2011). In the process, the body learns to fight off the virus hence strengthening the entire immune system. In terms of social psychology, the inoculation ideology is normally applied to systematic psychological functionalities. How people illustrate how people adapt to their immediate surroundings. The vaccine or inoculation is likened to beliefs which one changes as he or she comes into contact with another society or group of people.

 In terms of modifying the points from the original article, these points bring to light that stereotypical inoculation is the norm in society and people have to try and develop more free will than they tend to show or adhere to. Human beings tend to gravitate towards more favorable. Most humans are not on good terms with their respective peers but they are still tied to the issues that drive their actions and standard of living.

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Stereotype inoculation is dependent on people’s believes. The beliefs of many tend to change the beliefs of a few people. Once a person belongs to a certain group of people then he or she has to conform to the social cues of that particular group of people. Some people tend to bring out the best in them because they agree with the immediate norms of that particular group of people (Kidd, 2016). This is the sole reason behind having a role model. Social psychologists claim that having a role model is key in shaping the thoughts and actions of a person. Role modeling is a good indication of taking a stereotype and depending on it for purpose and identity. Most people ignore will gravitate toward certain role models because they shape how they perceive the world and the society around them. In simpler terms, people are willing to follow a role model because he or she has all the attainable qualities. One of the fundamental functions of stereotype inoculation is to assist people to connect social experiments to conclusive outcomes. To evaluate stereotype inoculation one can be able to compare two or more extremities and while at it, convince people to lean on one side. Thus, stereotype inoculation defines acceptable and unacceptable practices this defining wrong from the right while at the same time defining the changing times of the specific issues that one has to pursue. One's self-actualization and self-concept affect the general perception of actions and ensuing choices. Individual's actions and choices are impacted by their need to belong among peers and the community in general. In cases where diversity is frowned upon, the sense of belonging is higher and necessarily incorporated in everything one does.  The need to belong especially among diverse groups tends to be higher because they need to protect themselves from scarce situations and also cover their weaknesses.

 The consistencies created through stereotype facilitates the entire formation of the need for belonging. Stereotype creates a group of people with similar characteristics and achievements hence sharpening the difference between members and nonmembers of the said stereotypical group. One needs the wits to come up with more than one aspect of containing the external pressure from outside. Most people make their choice based on certain basic proposed by society (Kidd, 2016). One has to have more than one choice for him or her to be considered to have free will to do as he or she wants. If the final decision contracts the primary options or expected outcomes, stereotypical inoculation shapes the entire motions. If some people are forced to come to terms with societal norms and the underlying intention of driving the main agenda. Issues concerning how people interpret stereotypical inoculation entirely depend on how people perceive the ones around them and the benefits they are deriving from them. Issues of life are to be contained or looked at from a neutral point of view so that no one can be biased against stereotypes placed on them (Dasgupta, 2011). People emulate other people close to them. Most of the role models are stereotypes and help to inoculate other people into society. For the sake of initiating one into the larger society, avoiding deviant behavior is important as it creates more opportunities for one to be accepted into the entire community.

In summary, stereotype inoculation defines the underlying decision-making process of choosing one specific choice over another. Whenever people are presented with more than one preference, environmental fits, and social cues will play a major role in shaping the final decision. The environmental fits constrain human choices into stereotypical norms that are followed and adhered to despite personal preferences. At the end of the day, most people will be attracted to certain domains that seem to be known for their high economic status in society. Stereotypes create a sense of belonging and filter out people with deviant characteristics hence people struggle to belong to these stereotypical in-groups.

References

Aronson, J., & McGlone, M. S. (2011). Inoculations old and new. Psychological Inquiry, 22(4), 252-254.

Dasgupta, N. (2011). Ingroup experts and peers as social vaccines who inoculate the self-concept: The stereotype inoculation model. Psychological Inquiry, 22(4), 231-246.

Kidd, M. A. (2016). Archetypes, stereotypes and media representation in a multi-cultural society. Procedia—Social and Behavioral Sciences, 236, 25-28.

Observing a Coffee Shop

Introduction

Ethnography studies adopt a cultural lens whenever studying cultural relations within a certain community. The underlying ethnography in anthropological studies focuses on examining communal and cultural elements. It is not a must for the observer to take part in the activities he is observing as the main goal is understanding the cultural set up of the setting.  In contemporary society, the ethnography study of a coffee shop reveals numerous things about the cultural norms of the current society.

Coffee Shop

 The coffee shop is one of the busiest business in the morning hours. Most people who pass through the coffee shop rush into work rather than stay at home. The coffee shop serves offers a platform to people who wish to seat down and take their coffer while at the same time catering to the needs of those who are in rush to get their coffee and leave. There is a lot of things that one can observe if patched at a most popular coffee shop on the street. Humans are social beings and coffee not only necessitates the social aspect that comes with culture but reinforces the culture and background of people who tend to keep up with food trends and social wellbeing of the entire community (Ssorin-Chaikov, 2017). Observation aims to gain a deeper understanding of the cultural perspective of the community and build up more than one way of sustaining the needs and wants of the entire community. For instance, some may prefer their coffee hot or even cold due to medical reasons hence one cannot group people based on their preferences. Instead, the underlying reasons might reveal more due to the direct tie to cultural norms.

One of the most visible things to note about a coffee shop is the potential to meet numerous people who merge at the same location to get one thing. Thus, the mannerisms cannot differ that much from one person to the next. The coffee shop has tables and seats hence present its clients with a social setting. Also, a coffee shop does not offer a wide range of products hence apart from drinking variants of coffee, the clients may purchase other foods that can be eaten with the coffee (Rapport, 2014). Therefore, the coffee shop setting is highly regulated hence the actions are already to be expected or even anticipated. In the long run, the work of the observer is supposed to be pegged to the action and how it is done. Most of the cultural norms are not that different from each other and they might reveal more than one person is meant to see (Bernard, & Gravlee, 2014). Also, the coffee shop is limited in terms of how one can define culture and its application to the situation presented at hand. The chance to come to terms with the modern-day culture is to define the underlying reasons driving the things that one sees and does in a certain time frame. Before deducing the chances of accurately separating cultural norms from the observation that can be found within an eatery, one has to understand the needs of the people who come to a coffee shop.

Coffee Shop Description, Observation, and Analysis

 As stated earlier, the coffee set up is already designed to generate social aspects. Numerous people go into a coffee shop daily. All the people differ in terms of height, ethnicity, and even physical features. People have made it a norm to comprehend and interpret social situations. It is a fact that people have learned to live with each other and anticipate every action. One simple deed can have more than two or even three meanings to most people. Some people walk slowly while others walk hastily coffee shops have standardized patterns in terms of the interior arrangement (Eller, 2016). The interior of this particular coffee shop is designed to provide the clients with much-needed comfort. More so, the coffee shop is filled with menus, baristas serving different types of coffee.  Pastries are placed near the barista and their work is to address customer needs based on age. The room is well lit and everyone who enters the room goes straight to the counter to make an order. Most people are loyal customers and they have been to the place numerous times hence their body language is laid back with a calm demeanor (Fabian, 2014). Some customers who are in hurry to get their order on time, sometimes seat beside the bench as they browse through their phones. Once their coffees are ready they say a distance thankyou as they rush through the door. In the meantime, most of the staff serving the people at the counter are ever attentive to the needs of everyone walking through the door. It is a busy place and the aim of the coffee shop is to make more money as they serve the people who walk into the door.

People behavior

 Some of the clients went into the queue after picking some snacks from the shelves. Others looked around and were curious about the surroundings and the sitting zones. A small number of the customers, specifically the ones who had friends waiting for them, went to the sitting zones and left their staff such as backpacks. Various tables are organized in a manner that can accommodate more clients and seeing to it that socialization takes place. The clients talk more to the staff members than to themselves. People who come into the coffee shop in groups are more talkative than people who come in alone. Thus, the social structure set in place at the coffee shop determines the mannerism of the people who come in. some people can come into the coffee shop to order a drink and then spend the entire time studying (Latour, 2017). One customer came into the coffee shop and spent her time chatting on her phone while occasionally reading a book she had in her hand. Also, whatever one's actions do not have a direct impact on the next person. The coffee shop is arranged to make people feel comfortable in each other’s space hence making language and communication easier. Sometimes, the girl opened her backpack and removed her laptop. It looked as if she was working on her school project. Another man a few feet from the lady was busy texting and going through his social media posts. The interaction between people made the scenery more comfortable and at ease to be in. some people held an informal meeting at the coffee shop as they drank their coffee and chat with other people around the table. The coffee table space encouraged people to socialize among themselves as they went about their day. Some people at the meeting seem to be uncomfortable with sharing out their ideas. At some given point the movement increased as people went in and out of the coffee shop. Most of the people who walked into the coffee shop were talking in a conversant tone that did not create any distractions to the people who were already on the inside. Some clients would laugh out loud in the company of others. After the coffee shops began being busy, a woman walked in with two children and bought some snacks for her sons. One of the children interrupted other clients when he started crying. Most of the customers looked at the mother and her children because of the crying child. Most of the customers gave her disapproving looks.

Analysis

 The characteristics and behavior of people who are gathered in place directly contribute to their mannerisms and behavior. These gatherings improve communal mannerisms and help in communication between two or more people. In the same way, some people have to come to terms with the appropriate actions whenever a transactional approach is taken in the study of the entire coffee shop interactions (Tamarkin, 2018).  The concept of functionalism can be befitting for this topic as it can be used to explain more than one aspect of the actions of the customers. Integrative details help in shaping culture and how people respond to it in the long run.

Conclusion

 Cementing cultural norms is a collective identity as culture is done collectively. Each action done was a representation of a cultural reaction. For example, in the early morning, people rush to the office and accomplish more tasks. Infrastructures and community arrangements are designed to meet the needs of the people. In this particular context, coffee shops enable people to meet their needs. Hence, the ability of the coffee shop to meet the needs of the customers points to functionalism.

References

Bernard, H. R., & Gravlee, C. C. (Eds.). (2014). Handbook of methods in cultural anthropology. Rowman & Littlefield.

Eller, J. D. (2016). Cultural anthropology: global forces, local lives. Routledge.

Fabian, J. (2014). Time and the other: How anthropology makes its object. Columbia University Press.

Latour, B. (2017). Anthropology at the time of the Anthropocene: a personal view of what is to be studied. The anthropology of sustainability (pp. 35-49). Palgrave Macmillan, New York.

Rapport, N. (2014). Social and cultural anthropology: The key concepts. Routledge.

Ssorin-Chaikov, N. (2017). Two Lenins: A brief anthropology of time. Hau Books.

Tamarkin, N. (2018). Time and relational possibility: cultural anthropology in 2017. American Anthropologist, 120(2), 305-327.

Sustaining culture through death

Introduction

Human beings have had varying opinions about the concept of death and the events that transpire after a person dies. The different beliefs have led to the emergence of varying opinions and practices that are carried out when someone succumbs to death. Although a people’s culture greatly influences how people approach death and funerals in different communities, the practices that exist today are greatly influenced by the customs and traditions that have been passed on from one generation to the next. An analysis of the history of American funeral directing can therefore be used to demonstrate how practices that originated in the past have been passed from one generation to the next and in so doing, emphasize on the importance of preserving such customs in order to help maintain a people’s culture.

            The major reason for choosing the topic on funeral directing has to do with the respect that people pay to the dead and the impact that the process has on the bereaved. Most, if not all of the practices that are carried out during the burial process are intended as a final farewell to the deceased (Smith, 2010). After passing on, the deceased goes through the funeral directing process where the body is cleaned, dressed and prepared for burial. Although the practices in use today differ from those used in the past especially in terms of delivery and intended purpose, their use throughout history has helped people to retain the custom where the deceased is prepared and kept in ideal conditions before burial (Smith, 2010). Customs and traditions handed down to generations as part of their culture greatly influence how their society function, ideologies and attitudes towards one another and society in general. An analysis of the history of funeral directing therefore provides insight into the origin of customs and traditions that are still in use today as well as those that are influenced by practices that became outdated.

            Although most of the process engaged in throughout the process focus on the deceased, the customs and traditions surrounding the process are relevant in that they help the bereaved to accept the loss and start the process to recovery. Discussing the history of such processes will therefore create more understanding of processes that may not necessarily make sense but are still in use today. Understanding the origin of different customs and traditions can also garner more support and commitment during funerals and help during ceremonies that seek to collect additional funds, vehicles and other elements that are needed before the deceased is laid to rest.

            The history of funeral directing goes as back as the middle ages where funerals were held in churches and a requiem mass was held. The requiem consisted of prayers that were led and sung by a priest and the ritual was considered a way to say farewell to the deceased and also comfort those left behind (Habenstein & Lamers, 2018). Although a lot of changes have occurred since the middle ages, the practice has been passed on across generations and different religious groups have adopted similar practices. Most of the practices that are carried out in today’s funerals incorporate the use of a priest or religious leader who bears the responsibility of leading the burial process among other responsibilities (Crabtree, 2010). Its use in the funeral directing processes practiced today is a true testament of the importance of culture and can therefore be used to highlight on the importance of the customs and traditions that people engage in society.

            The history of funeral directing further helps one to understand how changes occurred and why it was important to abandon some of the practices that were common in the past for new and more effective ones. A good example is the changes that have occurred relating to burial sites, venues for ceremonies and also how the ceremonies were conducted. In the past, burials were located in close proximity to the church because there were limited options to transport the deceased from the church to the burial site (Jordan et al, 2018). Other than transport, funeral directors and researchers were yet to discover a way of preserving the body to slow down the decaying process. Since the ceremonies were held in churches, members of the congregation were exposed to diseases especially due to the limited storage space available in the churches.

            The developments that exist today are therefore a byproduct of the processes that originated in the past and have been innovated to overcome the challenges experienced and also enhance the entire process. Concerning diseases and congestion, people resulted to substituting churches with morgues where special equipment such as freezers and chemicals are used to preserve the body (Beard & Burger, 2019). Holding the dead in a different setting reduces the outbreak of diseases that originated from contact with the dead bodies housed in the church. The introduction of new techniques to preserve the bodies also made it possible for burial ceremonies to take place far from where the body is kept. Human beings could now cover larger geographical areas and even transport the diseased across country.

            Some of the practices that were carried out in the past further influenced some of the respect and acts of common decency afforded to the deceased. Take the case of cleaning the body as an example. In the past, the practice was carried out by members of the Catholic Church to cleanse the deceased soul and ensure that the deceased is allowed to enter heaven (Jordan et al, 2018). Members of the guild selected to engage in funeral directing were also required to pay a penny whenever a member of the guild passed on. The customs and traditions have been passed on and are carried out even in funeral directing today. In today’s society, cleaning is done as a way to make the body presentable for family viewing and also as a means pf preserving the body (Jordan et al, 2018). While contributions are not restricted to members of a guild, most ceremonies include contributions and donations given to the family of the deceased. Recalling such events is therefore important as it reinstates the importance of such customs and traditions thereby enhancing their influence in society.

Conclusion

Death is one of the few things in society that are constant. Despite the existence of various concepts regarding what happens after dying, the debate focuses on what happens after dying as majority, if not all human beings have come to accept the finality of death. The history of funeral directing tracks the events and changes that have happened concerning how people go about laying the deceased to rest. The information can be used to highlight the importance of the practices that have been passed on across generations while still acting as a tool for sustaining a people’s culture. Sustaining such practices should therefore be made a priority as it will help people to hold on to their culture and also find more innovative and humane ways to lay loved ones to rest.

References

Beard, V. R., & Burger, W. C. (2020). Selling in a Dying Business: An Analysis of Trends           During a Period of Major Market Transition in the Funeral Industry. OMEGA - Journal       of Death and Dying, 80(4), 544–567. https://doi.org/10.1177/0030222817745430

Crabtree, L (2010). "The changing discourse of death: a study of the evolution of the        contemporary funeral industry." Electronic Theses and Dissertations. Paper 286.   https://doi.org/10.18297/etd/286

Habenstein, R. W., & Lamers, W. M. (2018). The history of American funeral directing.   Brookfield, WI : National Funeral Directors Association

Jordan, P., Ward, J., & McMurray, R. (2019). Dealing with the Dead: Life as a Third-Generation             Independent Funeral Director. Work, Employment and Society, 33(4), 700–            708. https://doi.org/10.1177/0950017018799621

Smith, S. E. (2010). To serve the living: Funeral directors and the African American way of         death. Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard University Press

Theories, Key Concepts, and Tactics Used in Macro-Resistance

Theoretical Framework

Resistance is a complex social phenomenon that can involve a wide range of behaviors and actions. It has been viewed as a representative of hope as well as a trite idea that is used to legitimize the consumptive practices of the rebels. Macro-resistance is a form of resistance that emphasizes the issues of power and inequality at the official level in society. Macro-resistance features contribute to the increase of inhabitants deviants in the community. Once accessing the institutional way that holds up social goals is constrained, the populace size of conformists declines whereas the populace size of deviants upsurges. The inclined constraints on access are most possible instigated by a greater degree of defiance to altering institutional exercises. Alteration in these exercises is required to adapt to variations in the societal and commercial certainties and the failure to adapt results in suboptimal performance (Lassiter et al, 2018). For that reason, a higher percentage of resistance to transformation means that institutions are acting at a suboptimal level. Lower presentation hinders the development of safe social settings, required for persons to turn into conformists and be able to access the required properties. Resistance to transformation plays a part in controlling marginalization whereby it is speculated that diversity has a significant part in the perviousness of class borders. At the macro level, a member of a subculture may bring together a group of people to resist a mutual societal ideology together. The aim of bringing them together is to offer support to struggles that other people are facing or create political change.

Literature Review

According to Lassiter et al, (2018) marginalization is the least access to institutional ways of achieving social goals. Marginalized individuals have constrained access to resources such as schools and hospitals. Being culturally diverse and resisting to transform are some of the macro-level situations that have an impact on marginalization. Macro conditions that are more favorable to the development of marginalized groups are great institutional defiance to transformation and low ethnic diversity. Five groups in society are a representation of bigger and smaller marginalized groups of people. These groups are the “conformists, innovators, ritualists, retreatists, and the rebels”. The conformists are persons who have accepted the conventional ethnic goals and can access the institutional ways fully to attain the goals. Persons that cannot access the institutional ways but still hold their ethnic goals may find other means which may even be illegal to achieve these goals and these happen to be the innovators. The ritualists have access to genuine ways but insufficient to achieve their ethnic goals. The retreatists who retreat from taking part in the society have slight access to institutional ways and do not accept governing ethnic goals. The rebels are individuals who reject genuine ways and conformist ethnic goals in place of their own goals which they achieve by developing their ways. Rebels also abandon their community to follow goals and ways that are not available in their community. Recently the ritualists and retreatists have been placed in one group called the deviants because they both include persons and actions that move away from the normal ethnic rules and practices. The deviants are at a high possibility of being marginalized in the society they live in.

The macro-level theory is among the first to truly sociologically explain the causes of deviant behavior. It strives for understanding deviance by putting more focus on the social structure and forms that arise as persons and groups respond to circumstances that they cannot regulate or those that they have little control over (Featherstone & Deflem, 2003). Macro theory creates the notion that societal imperative is the product of an interrelated set of rules and that these rules are shared by the society and that deviance and how the society responds to deviance is necessary to maintaining order. Social assimilation and social transformation are the main aspects of deviant behavior. When a community goes through a rapid transformation, values become uncertain and the society is not able to control the behaviors of its members. Human beings cannot live happily if their needs are insufficiently proportioned to their means. Deviance occurs when there is a breakdown in the regulation of goals which makes the individual’s aspirations and expectations limited. In a stable society, most individuals are content with their positions or only aspire to accomplish only what is realistically possible for them to accomplish.

Another argument in the macro-level theory is that illegal and deviant conduct is learned just like any other conduct and not every person has a similar opportunity to study criminal expertise and have criminal occupations. This was particularly focused on the criminal gangs and the circumstances in which these gangs came about. Still, on the macro-level theory, more focus was placed on the neighborhood conditions and opportunities available to learn and get involved in legitimate or illegitimate skills. Results showed that in neighborhoods that crime thrived as an established institution, they were fruitful criminal learning settings for young people (Brezina, 2012). The forms of illegitimate prospects that are accessible in the underprivileged regions led to three forms of criminal subgroups which are “criminal, conflict, and retreatist”. Being that the concentration was placed more on the underprivileged regions, it is assumed that the youth that grows in these areas will have a deprived and insufficient genuine opportunity to be successful. Therefore, the accessibility of unlawful prospects becomes significant in modeling the deviance that happens in these regions. Criminal subcultures develop amongst adolescent boys in neighborhoods that are characterized by systematic, organized crime that provides an outlet in illegal employment for them and illegitimately obtain wealth. The successful criminals act as role models for the upcoming criminals and in this way through social learning, the young boys acquire skills and norms to take advantage of illegitimate opportunities. Conflict subcultures develop in communities that are not organized and illegitimate opportunities rarely exist and those that exist are mainly for the adults. Such communities are categorized by social instability and the young people growing in these communities are not allowed to access legitimate and illegitimate opportunities. When they are denied access to these opportunities, they become frustrated and become violent in order to show their value. Retreatist subgroups are related to drug usage and the drug culture that exists in the lower class of young adults. These young adults are termed as double failures since they cannot fit in the conflict or criminal subculture. They withdraw from society and retreat to using drugs and isolating themselves.

Macro-Resistance

According to Williams (2011), there is a difference between the middle class and working-class subcultures in the way they socially position their acts of resistance. For young people, resistance is an active part of their lives and this brings to our attention the supposition that some subcultures are embedded in class structures. Resistance does not need formal or political demonstrations to be macro-oriented. Among the straightedge youths, refraining themselves from mass cultural practices such as sex and drugs as part of a visible political direction towards a level change in the society. Some straightedges who self-identify themselves as being members of social justice and environmental movements are actively engaged in public demonstrations and other collective actions that are micro-oriented. However, a subcultural theory has failed to frame youth subcultures as movers of the macro-social change and have left the task to new social movements. The reason for this could be that the social movement theories have conceptualized the macro-resistance better.

The concept of subculture in macro theory has been used as a means of comprehending significant action and identity formation as a sequence of exercises both as an individual and a combined level. Deviance was viewed as a usual reaction by normal persons to their knowledge of social detachments and a deviant is an associate of the community. Some of the studies show that drugs were perceived to be a societal evil that corrupts the youth and makes them commit a crime and engage in careless behaviors. The person using the drugs is referred to as an inhuman who can only survive in subgroups (Blackman, 2004). A subcultural action is more about bringing back rules to the youth and a subgroup’s deviance builds up its inner group interrelations, forms harmony, and keeps order. Deviance is a result of an interaction of values and assembly in the society and persons who do not have the same social class places in the social arrangement have different opportunities of comprehending the mutual principles of being successful. This condition creates deviance depending on how a person will adapt to their aim of success. The social chain of command is another cause of organizational tension for a person. Studies show that the youths who did not adapt to the norms which were acquiring the success objectives through institutional ways were regarded as not part of the community and were regarded as deviant foreigners. The functionalist model of subgroup saw as if drugs were evolving from subculture and drugs were seen as an issue and threat to society. Another cause of delinquency for the youth that has been highlighted is the idea that maternal deprivation caused the youth to commit a crime. This argument maintained that when a child is separated from his mother during the first five years, they develop a delinquent character. 

Macro-level, such as the public policy is the center of all the dynamics in a society. The public rule is part of the macro-level theory and determines the properties that happen every day and drive the course of behavior and development. Macro-level speaks of the general cultural, past, and commercial arrangements of the society. This is where gender inequality, lack of recognition for the children’s rights, diversity, and all other forms of discrimination belongs. The law is a macro factor that refers to some acts of violence as more serious and important and treats others as if they do not deserve approval. Gender inequality has had some societies have extreme gender inequalities while others have more equality between men and women (Garner & Hancock, 2014). The characteristics of gender inequality are associated with the modes of production, forms of the state, social structures, and inheritance systems. The increase of women's movements can be explained in terms of the macro-level theory that associates the acts of the women to industrialization and their entry into the labor force and being able to get the managerial posts. Another theme that exists in the study of gender inequality is the use of women's perspectives to understand society and institutions. This calls for the experiences and actions of women being placed at the center of social analysis which will help in understanding the society more broadly.

The hierarchical organization of persons and groups in society determines their social class. A social class is determined by their wealth, educational achievement, and their income among other things. The social classes bring rise to inequality since there are underprivileged people in society as well. Inequality occurs when a person’s class in the social order is connected to different access to possessions. The main determiner of inequality is a person’s wealth and possession (Griffiths & Arnove, 2015). Race and gender are other factors that contribute to the imbalanced sharing of resources, prospects, and freedoms. Different sociologists have explained why discrimination exists from a worldwide perspective using different theories. The “theory of development and modernization” has been used to maintain that the reason the underprivileged countries remain underprivileged is for the reason that they still cling on to the traditional beliefs and institutions. The dependency theory blames the continued commercial reliance on past foreign nations for international stratification. They argue that nations are developing unevenly because the prosperous nations have oppressed the underprivileged nations previously and recently through foreign dues. The way to reverse inequality according to the dependency theory is to let go of the earlier debts so that the countries can make some profit from their incomes. The “world-systems theory” maintains that all countries are alienated into a three-tier order founded on their interrelations with the international budget and the position of a nation in this order decides its commercial growth. 

Conclusion

Macro-resistance is a form of resistance that emphasizes the issues of power and inequality at the public level in society. The factors of macro-resistance contribute to the increase of inhabitants deviants in the community. Conformists, innovators, ritualists, retreatists, and the rebels represent the bigger and smaller marginalized groups in society. The main factors of deviant behavior are social integration and social change. There are different arguments about deviant behavior where some say, it is adapted, others say it is learned through other people as a way of acquiring the illegitimate skills to get a job opportunity mostly in the poor communities which have led to the criminal, conflict and retreatist criminal subcultures. The concept of subculture in macro theory has been used to understand significant action and identify development as a sequence of exercises in both a single and a combined level. The macro-level is the overall ethnic, historic, and economic structures of society. Inequality, social class discrimination, lack of recognition all belong here. Some of the movements that people have engaged in have reduced inequality especially gender inequality.

References

Blackman, S. J. (2004). Chilling out: The cultural politics of substance consumption, youth and

drug policy. Maidenhead: Open University Press.

Brezina, T. (2012). Anomie-strain theory. In Routledge Handbook of Deviant Behavior (pp. 123-

129). Routledge.

Featherstone, R., & Deflem, M. (2003). Anomie and strain: Context and consequences of

Merton's two theories. Sociological inquiry, 73(4), 471-489.

Griffiths, T. G., & Arnove, R. F. (2015). World culture in the capitalist world-system in

transition. Globalization, Societies and Education, 13(1), 88-108.

Garner, R., & Hancock, B. H. (2014). Social theory: A reader: continuity and confrontation.

Lassiter, C., Norasakkunkit, V., Shuman, B., & Toivonen, T. (2018). Diversity and Resistance to

Change: Macro Conditions for Marginalization in Post-industrial Societies. Frontiers in psychology, 9, 812. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00812

Williams, J. P. (2011). Subcultural theory: Traditions and concepts. Cambridge, UK: Polity

Press.

Social Cognitive Theory

A Comprehensive Summary of Social Cognitive Theory

 The social cognitive concept defines the effects of personal experiences, other people's deeds, and the surrounding elements on personal medical characteristics. This concept offers openings for social provision by imparting self-efficiency and the usage of observational education and other interventions to attain behavioral alterations (Stillman, Shen, & Ferguson, 2018). The construct of social cognitive concept was initiated as a social learning concept in the 1960s by Albert Bandura. Through the years, it changed into social cognitive theory in 1986 and stated that learning takes place in social situations with active and mutual communication of the individual, surrounding, and the behavior. One of the unique characteristics of the social cognitive concept is the importance placed on societal influence and its effect on both exterior and interior social underpinnings.

 This theory takes into consideration the exclusive mechanisms where an individual obtains and retains behavior. At the same time factoring into the social surrounding under which the person manifests the behavior. Also, the concept holds into account an individual's experiences, which in turn assists in predicting the underlying action behind the behavior (Rubenstein et al., 2018). Experiences tend to impact or support future actions hence help one form a pattern or routine. In the end, all these factors influence a general behavior to rely on past actions and expectations. One of this particular theory's unique function is the focus placed on maintaining behavior rather than offsetting certain actions. Hence, this concept is important in noting the maintenance of behavior. Social cognitive theory aims to examine how individuals manage their manners through regulation and support to attain objectives over a certain period of time.

Main Components of the Social Cognitive Theory

 The theory revolves around goal comprehension- self-observation, self-examination, self-feedback, and self-effectiveness. These four elements are interconnected to each other and all impact inspiration and attainment of certain personal objectives. In terms of self-observation, reviewing one's personal behavior informs and motivates them to move toward certain goals. Through self-observation, one can evaluate progress toward certain objectives and, in the process, gain the motivation required to do more (Beauchamp et al., 2019). In self-assessment, one draws parallels between past performances and the ideal performance or objective. Self- assessment is determined by certain norms set and the significance of the objectives. Objectives need to be particular and essential, thus pushing one to do more to achieve them. Thirdly, self-feedback is essential as it indicates a reaction to one's personal performance. If the performance is perceived as exemplary, then one feels good and persists on the same path. Self-feedback permits one to reexamine their personal objectives in line with other achievements. For instance, attaining a certain objective, they susceptible to take up more challenging tasks that would sustain the attained goal. Whereas if one fails to achieve a certain goal, they susceptible to lower their expectation to achieve smaller goals. Besides, self-effectiveness come about when a person imagines the benefits that come after achieving certain goals. After achieving certain goals, the imagination of the outcome is one of the underlying motivations of forming a certain behavior and working relentlessly toward certain goals.

Human mannerism is usually portrayed as one-sided. The unidirectional interconnection behavior tends to influence and regulate how humans perceive the immediate surrounding and how they draw out lessons from their peers or fellow human beings. Social cognitive theory favors the reciprocal nature of determinism, where behavior is connected to a certain action and outcome. With reciprocal causation, various sources can influence the final learning outcome. Some factors might be stronger than others, while others might vary depending on the proximity has to the rest of the other factors (Lin, & Chang, 2018). Thus, the connection of behavior to immediate surroundings drives situations and influences the choices people make in the long run. Whenever experts view human development from a holistic view, then the most influential parts can be said to be social influences, which are attained through education or familiarity developed through time. Some are biological, while others can be acquired through the implementation of behavioral patterns. Some may even claim that social and technological advancement is key in determining life events in one's particular life.

Lessons and Activities That Would Be Used To Incorporate Social Cognitive Theory

 Social learning depends on behavior acquired through observation. Thus, under an attentive learning surrounding, one can observe other students or teachers. During the observation process, one pays attention to every detail being performed. This way, the classroom can be turned into a training session where people observe each other and perform activities they have seen over a certain time frame (Otaye-Ebede, Shaffakat, & Foster, 2020). One of the best ways of learning is forming groups and then putting the students in control of the entire discussion hence permitting other students to direct the entire objective. The second activity and lesson is retention as students learn from fellow students. Whenever students learn from their fellow students, they are forced to observe how they are doing things. This way, the students can form teams and attend to the objective at hand. It is vital to note that the learning process might not necessarily lead to behavior formation, especially in the classroom environment. Learning does not take place immediately. The observer can develop the new behavior, but the learning might be affected later on. There is an assumption that objective aligned behavior is the best way of cementing learned behavior. A goal motivates one to acquire certain mannerisms to obtain the objective. An additional assumption pushed forward by social cognitive theory is that behavior is self-regulatory (Stillman, Shen, & Ferguson, 2018). The scholars behind this concept believe that once a behavior is acquired, an individual naturally acquires the ability to learn and regulate the said behavior. In simpler terms, if a teacher can alter a student's attitude, then, the student can acquire a new behavior that enables learning essential school material. The chance to come up with more than one way of tending to the students' needs depends on how well the behavior enables the achievement of certain objectives in particular surroundings.

 The social cognitive theory highlights a dynamic learning mechanism that narrates human functionality. This concept attributes a key role in the cognitive procedure in which a person can perceive others and the surrounding, replicate thoughts and actions based on the actions and certain routines. In the process, one gets the chance to realize the concept of self-regulation can be expounded on in the context of the capability to make choices and execute these choices based on certain interests (Beauchamp et al., 2019). If a social cognitive theory is redefined through free will, then the urgency of achieving certain objectives decreases due to the lack of need or motivation to pursue these objectives. For free will to take place, one has to rely on self-determination for motivation. For others, it takes more than just self-motivation to attain certain goals. The ultimate source of certain outcomes and behaviors are entirely dependent on compatibility, and the chance one has to come up with more than one way of acquiring behavior in the right manner. Even though the classroom allows one to learn flexibly and acquire information via more than one multiple means. The combination of a calm surrounding and a willingness to participate in the extension of more than one personal initiative helps students learn more than one behavior. Self-regulation highlights the essential role people play in defining perception and capabilities in furthering the information acquired over a certain time frame. The democratic concept that entails competency and issuance of successful learning tips to pursue goals is a defined and verified way of ensuring that.

Conclusion

 The social cognitive theory combines one's personal experiences, observable actions, and immediate surrounding elements to influence learning. This way, the theory gives a chance for social support through the impartation of expectation, self-assessment, and the usage of observational learning to acquire information and further apply the learned concept through coaching or any other means. Social cognitive theory's primary concept entails common determinism where a person interacts with the external surrounding, mannerisms, and experiences to generate an accurate objective. Therefore, the chance to manage the emblems of learning is through the achievement of certain goals. In addition, one has to ensure that the surrounding can facilitate the entire objective partly due to the resources found within a certain environment. Also, the capability of self-awareness creates a sense of obligation to achieve a goal.

Reference

Beauchamp, M. R., Crawford, K. L., & Jackson, B. (2019). Social cognitive theory and physical activity: Mechanisms of behavior change, critique, and legacy. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 42, 110-117.

Lin, H. C., & Chang, C. M. (2018). What motivates health information exchange in social media? The roles of the social cognitive theory and perceived interactivity. Information & Management, 55(6), 771-780.

Otaye-Ebede, L., Shaffakat, S., & Foster, S. (2020). A multilevel model examining the relationships between workplace spirituality, ethical climate and outcomes: A social cognitive theory perspective. Journal of Business Ethics, 166(3), 611-626.

Rubenstein, L. D., Ridgley, L. M., Callan, G. L., Karami, S., & Ehlinger, J. (2018). How teachers perceive factors that influence creativity development: Applying a Social Cognitive Theory perspective. Teaching and Teacher Education, 70, 100-110.

Stillman, P. E., Shen, X., & Ferguson, M. J. (2018). How mouse-tracking can advance social cognitive theory. Trends in cognitive sciences, 22(6), 531-543.

Fighting injustice

Activists and lobby groups exist to serve a common interest which often involves stopping a major injustice in society. Often times, protests are used as a tool to air people’s dissatisfaction with the injustice and desire for change. The approach has been used throughout history as was the case with Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. and Caesar Chavez in their fight to end social inequality. Although they used different approaches, Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. and Chavez united people against a common form of oppression and relied on protests as a call to action and instrument of change.

Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. challenged the status quo when he advocated for equal rights of the African American community. African Americans were treated as lesser human beings compared to whites.  Some of the Injustices that MLK sought to fight included unfair representation of African Americans in courts and also advocated for the removal of humiliating racial signs (King, 1963). Chavez on the other hand sought to end the common norm where Catholic churches did not play their role in helping the community. Chavez considered the church’s unwillingness to help those in need an injustice especially because the church’s existence was heavily dependent on the survival of the congregation (Chavez, 1968). Chavez also believed that the church was morally obliged to help those in need.

Concerning religion, Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. uses religion as a tool to critique and bring about change by comparing the challenges his people were going through with trials in the bible and using their success as a testament that his quest will one day come to pass (Kesler, 2010). A good example is the case where King uses the example of Christians who were so devout to their faith that they were willing to be thrown in a den full of hungry lions rather than submit to unjust human laws (King, 1963). The reference from the bible is used as a call to action, urging people to commit to their cause and give whatever it takes to bring an end to oppression and discrimination of the Negro community.

Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. also uses religion as a cautionary tale against those who engage actions that discriminate or oppress the Negro community. In his address, King mentioned how Meshach, Shadrach and Abednego refused to obey the laws of Nebuchadnezzar because they served a higher moral law. Since religion has more influence over people’s actions, it can also be used to incite people against acts of oppression (King, 1963). King urged those in power to seek out ways to bring about equality before the oppressed decided to take matters in their own hands. Uniting people under religion ensured that the protests operated under a common moral code and sought to end the injustice that had long been considered a social norm.

Chavez also believed that the church could be used to bring about change and put an end to social injustices that exist in society. In his address, Chavez compared the efforts from the Protestant community against those from Catholics especially when helping the poor and needy (Chavez, 1968). His observations revealed that although both Protestants and Catholics were in a position to help the poor, the Catholics were more reluctant compared to Protestants. Chavez however believed that positive change would only be achieved if priests, bishops and big officials from the catholic community got involved and did as much to help the poor as the protestants.

The methods used by King and Chavez to affect change were similar in that they both understood the importance of getting people involved in the fight to end social injustices. The letter by King for example was a call to action explaining his actions and also urging people to follow his example and join in the fight to end oppression and discrimination of people from the Negro community (King, 1963). The letter addressed the various forms of oppression that existed in society, what King had done to try and put a stop to them and also what was required to ensure that people were treated equally in society. Chavez’s address was also similar to King’s in that he tried to explain the activities he was engaged in, the social injustice they sought to stop and how people go get involved and stop the injustice (Chavez, 1968). Chavez called on church leaders, especially in the Catholic community to turn away from a status quo that limited the churches involvement in the community for a more direct role that would place leaders in the front line towards helping the poor and stopping vices that oppress them in society.

Another similarity is that both Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. and Caesar Chavez called for peaceful protests in their fight to bring about positive change. In his letter, King narrates how he was responsible for various protests that were often put on hold to allow for special events such as Christmas and elections (Kessler, 2010). Chavez on the other hand opted to work with Protestants to offer help to the poor while still finding ways to get the Catholic Church more involved with helping those in need.

The contribution that Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. and Caesar Chavez had in the fight to end social injustices greatly influenced how people approach injustices in society. Their approach to rely on negotiations and peaceful protests has been carried on in different protests that seek to have a similar impact. Although protests and demonstrations tend to get violent, both King and Chavez attributed this to the tipping point where the oppressed can no longer seat back and the oppressor must change the social norm and bring about positive change. Despite using different methods, the use of peaceful protests and negotiations proved successful, to some extent, in helping King and Chavez bring about positive change.

References

Chavez E, (1968) “The Mexican-American and the Church” retrieved from,             https://libraries.ucsd.edu/farmworkermovement/essays/essays/Cesar%20Chavez%20-        %20The%20Mexican-American%20and%20the%20Church.pdf

Kessler, B. (2010). Building It All From Scraps. Xlibris Corporation.

King L, (1963) “Letter from a Birmingham Jail” African Studies Center- University of      Pennsylvania, retrieved from,            https://www.africa.upenn.edu/Articles_Gen/Letter_Birmingham.html

Human development

Introduction

           Human beings have different life experiences depending on the stage of human development they are in. The different stages are influenced by the pursuit of education that leads up to a career and also the actions that people engage in to develop and maintain a social life. Such is the case for Mr. X, a retired 72-year-old professor from Boston whose lifelong passion was always to be a teacher. The desire to pursue a career in teaching was influenced by his mother who was a teacher and also his role model. After losing his father and brother to a road accident, Mr. X’s mother applied for a job as a school teacher and enrolled Mr. X in the same school as she could not afford a nanny. Mr. X would therefore spend most of his free time in a classroom surrounded by books or listening to stories narrated by her mother on their drive home from work. The exposure to books and spending time around teachers exposed the young boy to the mysterious life of books and his desire to learn was born. 

Changes according to life events

           Mr. X’s life has greatly revolved around education and learning. Other than the influence from his mother, his passion for learning extended to schoolwork and he found it satisfying to help colleagues with topics they found challenging in school. Mr. X grew up knowing the importance of education and strived to attain academic excellence. His ability to grasp concepts and gain knowledge made him a favorite among teachers, most of which would select him to explain concepts in class and even manage entire lessons when the teacher was away. Mr. X viewed the exposure as an opportunity to not only test his knowledge but also identify areas that proved difficult for other children. Assisting others with topics they found challenging helped Mr. X to come up with different strategies to approach problems as well as innovative ways to help different students depending on their unique characteristics. While in school every moment was an opportunity to learn as Mr. X would spend most of his time in the library or with other students discussing topics and brainstorming ideas of how to approach difficult topics in the curriculum. His attitude towards learning not only improved his academic skills but also how people skills and ability to get along with people from diverse backgrounds.

Historical event that changed his life

           The major historical event that changed Mr. X’s life was the loss of his father and brother. The experience exposed him to a different side of human empathy and selflessness that he was yet to experience. Friend and family members all joined together to support his mother before she could secure a better job. Support came in form of food, money, and assistance with house chores. After his mother got a job as a teacher, her colleagues would take turns looking after Mr. X while she performed her duties. The exposure taught Mr. X the importance of family and having close relations with people that you associate with regularly. It also allowed him to experience how teachers function as a family, looking after each other’s interests while still ensuring that students are taught and given the skills and knowledge needed to land promising careers. It was at this point that Mr. X decided to become a teacher. He viewed the profession as a way to belong to a big family and also be in a position to help others by teaching them the skills they need to make it in life. 

Personal Life events

           Life events have also heavily influenced the direction Mr. X’s life has taken. Meeting his wife for example has positively influenced his career and enabled him to build a reputation at the institution he works in. Marrying a career woman and the birth of his two children motivated Mr. X to pursue a master’s in education and this spearheaded his career growth from a high school teacher to a professor in one of the renowned institutions in the United States. Although the push was greatly influenced by the desire to make more income, the position helped Mr. X to reach more students and also influence policies and curriculum in favor of the students. Mr. X’s mode of teaching was inspired by how he saw his mother relate to students when he was young. Although he got tough when strictness was required, Mr. X treated his students as sons and daughters all eager to learn and deserving of the right kind of environment and content needed to increase the chances of the students having promising futures.

Adaptations to aging

           The life changes that Mr. X has made indicate that he has somewhat successfully adapted to aging. Despite his commitment to the teaching profession, he always ensured that he maintained a balance between his work and family life. The close relationship he has maintained with his family has proved of great help especially when transitioning into a life after retirement. His children for example moved closer to Mr. X’s home as they both wanted to take care of their parents during old age. The couple has also opened a daycare where children can learn and start their academic journey while their parents go to work. Mr. X had also saved up enough money to support the high cost of medical bills and a different lifestyle that people have to adopt as they grow old. This combined with the support from the school and his children ensures that his family has a comfortable life even after retirement. 

Issues resulting from aging

The aging process has however introduced great challenges that interfere with Mr. X’s way of life. Forgetfulness associated with old age has made it difficult for Mr. X to learn new things. Difficulty in movement associated with old age has also forced Mr. X to settle for a calmer mode of teaching as opposed to the active and lively lessons that his students had grown accustomed to. Lastly, old age has deprived Mr. X of privileges such as driving. His inability to operate heavy machinery has forced him to settle for books in his home and the few occasions he visits his daycare.

Conclusion

Although life has been challenging in old age, the relationships Mr. X and his family built with each other and friends have made it easier for Mr. X to lead a productive life even in old age. Although some of the changes have taken away some elements that he worked to improve his entire life, the impact Mr. X had on people has made life more comfortable and satisfying even in his old stage of development.