Assignment: Document Analyses 1

 The primary source document that was examined for this assignment was the illustration entitled "The genii of intolerance – A dangerous ally for the cause of women's suffrage." The Genii of intolerance is a 1915 era political cartoon[1]. It is a political cartoon because it is depicting political issues such as prohibition and the women's right to vote. I was able to evaluate the inference because the illustration depicts genii coming up out of the liquor bottle and hovering over the woman. The woman is holding a sign that says votes for women, and the Genii is tearing it out of her hands.

As learned in class, the suffrage movement took place in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, emerging out of urban industrialism and liberal, socialist politics. The goal of this first wave of feminism was to open up opportunities for women, including giving women the right to vote. The illustration depicts the many obstacles that women faced during the suffrage movement. The women of this era were plagued by poverty, loneliness, and alcoholism from their husbands. The original purpose of this document was to deter alcoholism and give women the fight for the right to vote. The original author of this document remains a mystery to me, although the illustration does say "Puck" on it, indicating the author's last name[2]

This document reveals that during the 18th century, the American government formed male suffrage, and all men were given the right to vote. However, male suffrage was associated with weaknesses such as alcohol abuse and male were not only irresponsible citizens but they were also irresponsible in their families[3]. Women were against this kind of patriarchal model and they entered into politicization where they campaigned for restrictions to alcohol sales. The alcohol consumption made women suffer from poverty and domestic abuse and during the 19th century, women formed associations and demanded political emancipation[4].Women campaigned on 'prohibition and temperance'. In other words, women wanted a ban on the manufacture, transportation, and sale of alcoholic beverages. Focusing on the document, the cartoon shows a bottle labeled the challenges that women experienced. There is also a women banner written "votes for women'. In this case, prohibition means that organizations such as the Women's Christian  Temperance Union participated in the prohibition movement and there were positive results in that women gained the right to vote and the right to participate in national politics[5].  The suffrage movement that aimed at achieving the right to votes and the prohibition movement that aimed at restricting the sales of alcohol led to women's right to vote.

 In the document, the author reveals that women felt that they were treated as inferior human beings whose role was to raise children and home responsibilities.  Men believed that women were incapable or they could not participate in politics. However, women changed these attitudes and beliefs and realized that they were experiencing difficulties and they needed political rights.  For example, people like John Stuart Mill and Harriet Taylor established something called 'Enfranchisement of Women' that favored the women's suffrage[6]. The two were interested in empowering women and allowing them to access the freedom for education,  right to vote, right to participate in professional spheres, and other areas.  However, the document reveals the attitude of women toward the Anti-Suffrage League or an organization that opposed women's suffrage[7]. However, women did not focus on the failure but they formed the Women Suffrage Association in Michigan-small political groups that supported suffrage rights[8].  The groups used the political strategy of interacting with state lawmakers and could ask them to consider the bill. However, the state lawmakers did not favor them but they argued that they are not ready to make changes on such matters[9]. The small groups or the supports of suffrage rights did not lose hope but they communicated with the state House of Representatives. Remarkable, fifty of the House of Representatives voted for the women's suffrage[10]. However, for a constitutional amendment to be passed, a two-thirds majority is required and thus, the vote was counted as initial defeat. Nevertheless, the governor was one of the members of the Women Suffrage Association and he played a significant role in ensuring that the commission reviews the issue of women suffrage[11]. However, the commission did not review the issue and this was also a failure. The governor persuaded the legislators to have a special session to review the issue of woman suffrage and on a positive note, the legislators supported the constitutional amendment[12]. However, legislators did not provide full support but they asked the women suffrage supporters to wait for suggestions at the ballot box. In general, there was no constitutional interest and the legislators could not put into consideration the issue of women suffrage.  On a positive note, the prohibition advocates reviewed the issue of women suffrage[13].

[1]  The genii of intolerance – A dangerous ally for the cause of women's suffrage. Page 1

[2]  Ibid, 2

[3] Murdock, Catherine Gilbert. 1998. Domesticating drink: women, men, and alcohol in America, 1870-1940. Baltimore, Md: Johns Hopkins University Press. Pg, 9

[4] Ibid, 9

[5] Ibid, 10

[6] Nelson, Carolyn Christensen. 2004. Literature of the women's suffrage campaign in England. Peterborough, Ont: Broadview Press. https://www.deslibris.ca/ID/405108. Pg, 5

[7] Ibid, 5

[8] McConnaughy M. Corrine. 2013. The Woman Suffrage Movement in America: A Reassessment. Cambridge University Press. Pg, 98

[9] Ibid, 98

[10] Ibid, 98

[11] Ibid, 98

[12] Ibid, 98

[13] Ibzid, 98

References

The genii of intolerance – A dangerous ally for the cause of women's suffrage. United States Legislative Information. https://www.loc.gov/resource/cph.3b49095/

Murdock, Catherine Gilbert. 1998. Domesticating drink: women, men, and alcohol in America,

1870-1940. Baltimore, Md:

Nelson, Carolyn Christensen. 2004. Literature of the women's suffrage campaign in England.

Peterborough, Ont: Broadview Press. https://www.deslibris.ca/ID/405108

McConnaughy M. Corrine. 2013. The Woman Suffrage Movement in America: A Reassessment.

Cambridge University Press

 Fundamental beliefs

My most fundamental belief is that I am worthy.  When something bad happens in life, this fundamental belief defends me against the world. Knowing that I am worthy helps me feel a sense of belonging. However, being worthy is my belief, not other people's beliefs. Thus, other people think of me as worthless. Even if they think am worthless, they are not right.  If I believe they are right, then I will be treating myself unworthy.  Note that I do not gain my worth so that I can be acceptable. In other words, I do not measure my self-worth when I am in good relationship with other people.  I prove my worthiness in all circumstances.  Each time, I have a greater sense of freedom and there is nothing that would make me feel unworthy. I have evidence that despite how people see me, I am aware of who I am.  In life, I have learned that some people feel a sense of worth if they have made a significant change in people's lives. Personally, worthiness is already in me.  I have a sense that I have a purpose.  My fundamental belief is that I am worthy within and I trust my heart.  As I said before, people may see me as unworthy but since my worthiness is inside me, people cannot change my decision. Thus, being worthy is within. My self-worth is not determined by factors such as physical appearance, people, friends, relationships, or money.  I am worthy because I look within and believe that I am worthy. In general, what makes me believe that I am worthy is my strong sense of self.  I do not look at myself through the eyes of other people but I find my worthiness within, not without.

 Sociological Theories

Sociological theories and concepts help us to understand our society, social behaviors, and relationships (Laustsen, Larsen, Nielsen, Ravn & Sørensen 2017). They affect our day to day interactions by how we communicate with other people and the languages we use to be understood in the social world. Sociological theories are responsible for the different perspectives we view the social world with, and the different social classes. These theories help us to expound and foresee the social world and human behavior. The different social classes affect our lives in terms of education, employment, housing, and race among other social differences. This makes it hard to give your full input because of the inequalities that result from the social classes. Sociological theories impact future learning opportunities by helping us understand the way societies function as a whole and interactions between individuals and the impact it has on us. Theories influence future learning opportunities in the need to understand more about the social and biological needs of individuals that make up a society. They enable us to develop the need to know more about the norms and values in our society, the significance of social consensus, and ways in which to reach the consensus.

The structural-functional theory focuses on how every part of the society functions, the relationship to each part of the society, and its functional aspects. The functionalist perspective maintains that each aspect of society is independent and adds to the functioning of society as a whole. The functionalist theory has been divided into two types which are the manifest functions that are intentional and the latent functions which are intentional (Laustsen et al. 2017). This theory links society to a human body in that the society is regulated by the various parts of the society working together to keep the society functioning just as the different organs of the bodywork to regulate the entire system. An example of this theory is how the government provides education to the children who in turn get employed and start paying taxes which the country relies on to keep running. This theory maintains that society is bound together by social cohesion whereby the society members agree on and work towards achieving them. In the workplace, this theory will help when it comes to teamwork and towards working towards a common objective for the best of the company.

Conflict theory is a perspective that focuses on the different social classes that society is made up of. These social classes compete for social, material, and political resources in that some of the individuals and organizations have the capability of getting and keeping more resources compared to others. This causes inequality in terms of education, gender, race, religion among others (Simon 2016). The unequal classes have conflicting values, beliefs, and programs which make them compete against each other. Unlike the functionalists who avoid the social revolution, the conflict theorists work towards the revolution. They maintain that social order is upheld by power, with authority in the hands of the rich individuals with the most resources economically, politically, and socially. Social change helps society to make progress in terms of equality and the development of society as a whole. Conflicting theory in the community through the competing aspect will help in aiming for higher education, better employment to change the social class, and the nature of the society.

References

Laustsen, C. B., Larsen, L. T., Nielsen, M. W., Ravn, T., & Sørensen, M. P. (2017). Social

theory: a textbook. Taylor & Francis.

Simon, R. M. (2016). The Conflict Paradigm in Sociology and the Study of Social Inequality:

Paradox and Possibility. Theory in Action, 9(1).

Analysis of Open Government Partnership (OGP) Organization’s Activities with Marginalized Communities

Introduction

            The Open Government Partnership organization aims to converse with marginalized and under-represented communities to improve on education and health. In the last 30 years, there has been tremendous progress in the world. However, one third of the world population still continues to live below the poverty line. Marginalized communities still continue to struggle with deeply-rooted issues such as discrimination, economic, political, social, and cultural norms and beliefs.

            OGP has over 200 commitments to support marginalized and under-represented communities in improving their education and health outcomes. The commitments endeavor to better understand the needs of the communities and eliminate any barriers to accessing information and services. There needs to be a concerted effort in eliminating extreme poverty in the world by ensuring better access to better healthcare, jobs, education, and other opportunities ford marginalized groups. The milestone is only possible if organizations such as OGP ensure everyone is included in the world progress.

            In 2011 government and civil society leaders created a partnership to create a powerful force that is OGP. The aim was to improve on accountability and responsive governance. The Open Government partnership boasts over seventy-eight country members and other continuously joining local governments who represent over 2 billion people in the world. The organization also contains members such as civil society groups who continue to agitate for the rights of the marginalized communities.

            The mission and vision of the OGP continues to be relevant and powerful as when it was founded in 2011. The partnership is now mature and continues to adjust to the constantly evolving context. The organization now boasts of over 4,000 open government reforms with a significant number showing lasting impacts. The partnership, however, continues to experience challenges such as backsliding democracies, deteriorating civic space and politics that is authoritarian and populist.

Needs Assessment

            The competing trends form the basis for the formation of OGP’s new three years plan implementation plan commonly referred to as “3YP”. The objective of the organization’s plan is to offer an improved roadmap for implementing the partnership’s vision and mission. Since 2011, the partnership has recognized the constantly changing operating environment. The implementation plan will bring clarity and focus to how the partnership improves outcomes for marginalized groups. The plan also recognizes additional areas that should receive focus in terms of time, energy, and resources. The 2020 annual implementation plan recognizes this within the 3-year strategy. Within the plan is the need to achieve the medium-term collective results to achieve the overall desired results. To achieve this, the reformist in government need to work hand in hand with the civil society and other strategic partners.

            The Support Unit (SU) and the Independent Reporting Mechanism (IRM) also serve an essential role. The three-year plan elaborates on the crucial role these arms play within the organization. Among the partnership’s strategic approaches and main areas of focus include forming global partnerships, reducing corruption, increasing member states, and reforms that empower marginalized groups such as creation of a beneficial ownership register in Armenia and Nigeria, open contracting in in Panama, beneficial services in Ghana, and engaging citizens in Burkina Faso.

What OGP has Learned

            The partnership aims to evolve while remaining true to its mission and vision. However, the organization to remain true to its purpose despite the constantly changing geopolitical environment. The vision of OGP creating inclusive governments that are sustainable, transparent, and accountable. Improving on equality is one of the core aims of the partnership. Marginalized groups experience difficulties in accessing crucial services such as health and education and gaining recognition din policy making. The “3YP” will demonstrate results in individual reforms within the member states and the working of the policies put forward by the advocacy groups. The aim is to create an open government that creates value and credible alternatives to the closed government.

            OGP offers a domestic and international solution to empower reformers that serve marginalized communities. Domestically, the partnership aims to support reformers who collaborate to design, implement, and monitor the government to make them more open, accountable, and responsive to all citizens. On the international stage, OGP aims to support reformist by encouraging better political leadership, mobilizing networks for peer learning, developing coalitions, and fostering space for sharing reforms that are working.

OGP Milestones

            In order to form a complete picture of the OGP’s 3-year plan, it is important to understand the current situation. The metrics since the formation of the partnership in 2011 to the current year are clear. The organization has grown from 8 members to 78 in 2020. Over 20 local governments are members of the organization and continue to be partners in an aggressive subnational and national engagement process. The members also include over 3,000 civil society groups. The organization has over 4,000 commitments of which over 66% have been successfully implemented. The IRM branch has published over 350 reports to improve on learning and accountability.

            The organization has so far organized over six global summits that has shown tremendous improvements in political engagements. The engagements include 78 ministers and other high level officials that were hosted by the Canadian Prime Minister of Ottawa Trudeau in 2019. The headline of course goes beyond headline numbers such as understanding the real impact. In the medium-term effects of the plan, the action plan aims to improve the planning process. Two-thirds of the countries possess the initiate to improve on the situation. The issue is critical to OGP plan 3-year plan in bringing together the crucial partners such as the civil society and creating unusual partnerships such engaging the civil society in a critical conversation. In a survey undertaken by the organization, 62% of the respondents from the civil society in a consecutive partnering. The critical partnership in the OGP brings together government and private partners in building unusual partnerships and creating client-oriented dialogue. According to a 2018 survey 62% of the civil society respondents gave feedback that the OGP plan was reflected in the OGP plan.

            The unique multi-stakeholder co-creation processes and domestic level yielding processes need commitments on anti-corruption, engaging the citizens, opening the data sharing process. In this case it should be understood that OGP will have to take into account some of the governmental issues. Ideally, dependency on the same democratic assembly is the that is perceived to aid in emancipating the masses.  From the political perspectives the imperatives of the modern economic systems will have to take into account some of the economic crisis have been existing.

            On the other hand, OGP is considered to have the propensity of expanding as well as deepening the whole within the stipulate period. What this implies is the fact that democracy has the potential of reducing some of the changes that could have happened within the system. Marginalized societies still remain to struggle with deeply-rooted issues such as judgement, economic, political, social, and social norms and beliefs. There needs to be a concerted effort in eliminating extreme poverty in the world by ensuring better access to better healthcare, jobs, education, and other opportunities ford marginalized groups. The landmark is only likely if organizations such as OGP safeguard everyone is included in the biosphere progress. The Open is perceived to have the potential of enhancing paradental partnership boasts over seventy-eight country members and other continuously joining local governments who represent over the amount of people in the world. The organization also contains members such as civil society groups who continue to agitate for the rights of the marginalized communities.

According to independent watchdog Freedom House, fundamental human rights, the rule of law and civil society are under attack around the world. Various avenues have reported serious violations of the freedoms of association, expression and peaceful assembly in over 100 countries. Trust in government has continued to fall, according to the Edelman Barometer. It is precisely at this moment that OGP is well positioned to step up and serve as a positive global force for deepening democracy and openness, and as a countervailing force against the rise of closed government. OGP has been far from immune to these challenges of governments closing democratic space. Hungary and Tanzania both decided to quit the partnership. Azerbaijan has been suspended, and several members are grappling with major corruption scandals and shrinking civic space. Additionally, some traditional champions of democracy and global governance norms have retreated from the global stage, spending their political capital elsewhere.

Yet, despite these challenging circumstances there are signs of resilience, commitment and hope. Courageous reformers from government and civil society are joining forces to co-create and co-implement concrete commitments expanding civic space, empowering citizens to shape and oversee policies and services, and undertaking transformational reforms to combat corruption. Many governments have also stepped up into leadership roles in OGP, including the co-chairs, other Steering Committee members, and a number of thematic champions on different policy areas. Collective Results Living up to OGP’s vision requires achieving two impacts over the long term. First, the partnership must lead to impacts at a level that citizens experience, whether through improved services, reduced corruption or more efficient government; openness in the abstract means little if it fails to improve people’s lives. And second, OGP must contribute to building a stronger global movement for open government and democracy, that is able to stand up for open government values and principles, whilst being a countervailing force against efforts to undermine them. These two impacts are also interrelated: improvements in public policies and services that come 4 about through increased transparency and civic participation make a stronger case for democracy and civic participation in public life, creating a more vibrant global movement. In order to achieve these impacts, there are four Collective Results where OGP should demonstrate progress over the next three years.

Ambitious open government reforms that empower citizens to shape and oversee government are credibly implemented. OGP countries role model values such as government-civil society cooperation, inclusion and civic space, and advance a holistic open government agenda. Policies that empower citizens through transparent, participatory and accountable government are implemented by reformers in government and civil society across multiple countries, raising the bar on cross-country open government standards and principles. 4. Global: Open government issues have a stronger presence on the global stage, including in global governance fora and frameworks. These Collective Results can be advanced in any OGP country and will only be delivered through a true partnership-wide effort, including the government and civil society reformers using OGP at the national/local level, OGP’s strategic partners, the Steering Committee, and the SU and IRM.

These Collective Results are also interrelated. For example, an ambitious open government reform on a theme related to public participation could be implemented by a government and civil society coalition in a bright light country that is then showcased on the global stage to inspire others. Each Collective Result reinforces the others. There are five complementary strategic approaches through which OGP participants can advance the Collective Results. A stronger universal OGP platform supports reformers to advance open government in local, national and regional contexts. Over the next three years, the OGP SU and IRM will build a stronger platform for all 78 national members and a growing number of locals to access resources, tools, guidance and peer inspiration and support on open government. Civil society and government reformers in any OGP country should be able to use their country's OGP membership to design and implement better action plans that reflect citizen priorities.

Major projects to strengthen the OGP platform in the next three years include a refreshed IRM that is more user focused and in tune with when inputs are needed into country OGP processes, an expanded and more ambitious OGP Local strategy, and improving the resources available to all participants in the knowledge and learning hub. OGP’s Rules of the Game will also be reviewed in the 10^th anniversary to ensure they are best incentivizing and supporting reformers in government and civil society to make use of their country’s OGP membership. OGP commitments deliver results for citizens. Over the next three years, the most transformative commitments that have the potential to have tangible benefits for citizens should be credibly implemented. Better support needs to be provided to reformers to form effective coalitions for change, armed with the necessary political backing, inspiration from peer countries, technical knowledge and resources to implement ambitious open government reforms using the OGP platform. OGP countries become “Bright Lights”. OGP countries should role model open government and act as exemplars of the partnership, or “bright lights”. Reformers in government and civil society should work together to maintain political commitment to open government, demonstrate inclusive co-creation, produce ambitious action plans, and credibly implement their most transformative commitments. Thematic policy areas see greater ambition and implementation. OGP members and civil society should advance policies that promote open, inclusive and responsive government, spreading innovation and encouraging adaptation and adoption across OGP’s membership.

OGP can catalyze collective action through research and analysis on policy areas, strengthened partnerships and networks of expertise, and cross-country coalitions. Global advocacy strategies spur country action. OGP reformers should come together as part of global advocacy strategies to advance country-level action that moves openness and democracy forward. Through global and regional events, leveraging global platforms, stronger political leadership and smart use of campaigns, OGP can showcase the work of reformers and champions on the global stage to inspire more progress from other members. While these strategic approaches can be advanced by all actors in OGP, the SU and IRM will seek to balance its staff time, energy and resources between running the universal OGP platform (strategic approach #1), and a short list of specific focus areas.

 The rationale for this approach is that while all OGP members should be supported to make best use of the platform, there are some commitments, countries, themes and global strategies where the conditions are in place to make significant progress and where OGP could add value and complement the work of partners. In these areas, additional focus by the SU and IRM could help deliver the Collective Results. 6 7 OGP’s Theory of Change OGP’s Theory of Change outlines the role of the OGP platform, and the catalysts and change agents whose actions affect the intermediate, long term and ultimate impact OGP wants to make in the world. The evolution of OGP’s plan incorporates learning on how the platform contributes to change, and OGP’s role in a large ecosystem of other actors working on complex governance challenges. Pre-conditions OGP currently has 78 national members and a growing number of local participants. Before joining, each country must meet OGP’s Eligibility Criteria and pass the OGP Values Check, and commit to upholding the principles of open and transparent government by endorsing the Open Government Declaration. This helps to ascertain two critical things at the point of entry.  That there is enough political and civic space for accountability actors such as citizens, civil society organizations and media to operate freely.

That there is demonstrated commitment from the government to advance the open government agenda Of course there are countries that have joined OGP with high levels of political space and commitment to open government, which have since experienced declines in civic space and openness. In those contexts, the OGP process may become inactive, or in the most extreme cases result in countries exiting the partnership. Many Catalysts and Change Agents, One OGP “OGP” is made up of many different parts, including reformers in government and civil society in member countries, the OGP Steering Committee, strategic and thematic partners, and the staff at the SU and IRM. These are the catalysts and change agents who have shaped the priorities and evolution of the partnership to date, and each play a critical complementary role. Country reformers.

The Government Point of Contact both at Ministerial and civil servant level, and their teams; the lead civil society actors; and the Multi-Stakeholder Forum - are at the forefront of change. Their energy, skill, political acumen, and commitment are critical in ensuring the action planning process and global platform lead to ambitious, implemented reforms. These reformers engage with the partnership because it gives them a platform to collaborate and connect with others advancing open government. The platform brings them visibility and recognition for innovative and successful reforms, as well as political cover for difficult reforms. It gives them credibility, via the association with OGP and the rigorous standards of the IRM. It also helps them build relationships with other reformers, both within their political context and across 8 countries. And finally, OGP helps build their knowledge and skills in policy design and implementation. The Steering Committee provides political leadership, strategic guidance and accountability to the partnership, and especially to the SU/IRM.

 The Steering Committee is also expected to lead by example in how they engage with their own action planning process and thematic leadership. Finally, the Steering Committee is responsible for ensuring the OGP model and Rules of the Game are robust and incentivizing the change OGP is trying to support. Strategic Partners bring technical expertise, strategic thinking, and financial support to all members of the partnership and most notably to country reformers in government and civil society. OGP’s strategic partners range from civil society organizations working regionally and globally, to multilateral partners like the OECD, UNDP, and World Bank that strengthen the ecosystem around domestic open government ambitions.

The SU and IRM play a coordination role across the partnership, continually looking for ways to better support other catalysts and change agents to make the best use of the partnership and maintaining the credibility of the partnership through independent assessments of action plans. This includes providing universal services to civil society and government in all OGP member countries and locals. Universal services include access to guidance, tools, evidence and peer inspiration on what it means to be an open government, protect civic space, and how citizens can play an active role in shaping and overseeing government. These services are vital for strengthening the foundations of the OGP process in each country, so that space for deeper, more transformative change can be created. In a small number of focus areas, where there are clear strategic and political opportunities for change, the SU/IRM will invest extra time, resources and services.

The Contribution of the OGP platform The OGP platform is designed with reformers in government and civil society at the national and local level at its heart. Supportive elements such as strategic partners, Steering Committee and arms can influence and shape political incentives, level the playing field between government and civil society, help build thematic coalitions, and promote learning and skill sharing across countries. Country reformers can use these incentives and support services to advance open government reforms domestically and internationally, and in turn influence OGP’s incentives: Shape the political incentives, ideas and norms around open government by raising the visibility of the open government agenda in global and regional fora, and create the space for country reformers to take action and trigger a race to the top between countries.

 Scientific research

Karl Popper makes the argument that the scientific method of research is distinguished by its ability to refute the existing fundamental theories in science and replacing them with measurable and updated theories. His argument is based on the traditional forms of scientific research where scientist would carry out various experiments to try and explain a certain phenomena. The experiments include observations and examining available data and other methods of research. The data collected would then be interpreted and final findings and conclusions published to create reliable data explaining the phenomenon under study.

            Popper’s definition of scientific research and the processes involved is credible in that, it entails a description of how research was conducted in the past as well as measures taken to ensure that the data presented was credible. The process of refuting existing information from research conducted in the past helps to do away with scientific errors as well as falsified information (Magee, 1973). When researchers examine existing theories in science, they are able to identify conclusions made in the past that may have been based off of inaccurate data or that make wrong conclusions. The information is then researched further and more data collected to help refute the existing claims and replace them with updated theories.

            Regardless of the nature of research conducted, scientists often rely on scientific assumptions probability when making claims regarding the topic of research. Since it is difficult to prove that a scientific law of phenomena is truly fact, most conclusions drawn often leave room for more research as a way of increasing knowledge to better understand the phenomena under study (Magee, 1973). As such, any conclusions made, regardless of the nature of research conducted, there is always the possibility that the information collected will be examined by other researchers in future and alterations or corrections made depending on new changes and information used by other researchers in future.

            Research findings are heavily dependent on the efficiency of the research team and their ability to remain unbiased and accurate in their reporting. Although researchers try as much as possible to avoid bias, mistakes can arise when collecting data and this could result in inaccurate findings (Magee, 1973). Research claiming that there are only white swans in a region could be because the researchers were only able to see white swans in the region. Other researchers could conduct the same study and identify a black swan, thus refuting the claim that there are only white swans. The possibility of mistakes makes Popper’s definition of research ideal as it allows for the correction of mistakes that may have been made by researchers in the past yet presented as facts.

            An argument can be made that researchers develop their own premise and do not necessarily borrow from previous research. Scientific method of research is therefore influenced by the desire to make new findings rather than improving on those that already exists. While it is true that some researchers carry their own research without being influenced by past research, any new discoveries that go against previously held claims result in the old ones being updated. Since the discovery of new information results in alterations to previous finding, they end up refuting past claims and theories and substitute them with the new ones. The approach is in line with the scientific management theory which operates on the notion that scientific research can help to boost performance. The theory suggests that scientific research can help identify areas in an organizations process that affect productivity and how changes can be made to the corporate culture to enhance productivity (CFI, 2020). Similarly, assessing previous theories can help to identify areas that hinder research and scientific discoveries and make the changes needed to bring about the desirable outcomes.

            Although scientists engage in different forms of research, the process of collecting and interpreting data relies on factual information regarding the phenomena under study. As such, any new findings are likely to be compared against previous beliefs that people had regarding the area under study especially in occurrences where research had previously been collected. Since the methods of research are constantly evolving, findings made in the present are likely to be refuted and maybe even changed in future in accordance with Popper’s argument of the scientific research process.

References

CFI, (2020) “Management theories” retrieved from,             https://corporatefinanceinstitute.com/resources/careers/soft-skills/management-theories/

Magee B, (1973) “Popper” William Collins & Co. Ltd, retrieved from,             https://corporatefinanceinstitute.com/resources/careers/soft-skills/management-theories/

 Scientific Progress

 Introduction

Scientific progress is when science, scientific theories, and fields make progress and in particular when they show improvement in scientific knowledge. Science is known to progress when at the end of the period, there appears to be more knowledge compared to the beginning. Scientific progress has been supported by different ideas such as ideas from empiricists, and philosophers such as Popper, Kuhn, Lakatos, and Feyerabend.

Empiricism is a theory that puts more emphasis on the role of empirical evidence in the development of ideas and not intrinsic ideas or norms. According to this theory, the source of knowledge is primarily the sensory experience (Hossain 2014). Empiricists have the idea that experience affords the marks of standards of knowledge and these standards may be used to decide the extent of our knowledge. Empiricism is a theory that denies the existence of objective certainty and the dialectical connection of the subjective and objective aspects of knowledge. Empiricists emphasize the fact that sense experience is the only factor that can be used to guide our understanding of the world. They also emphasized that it is the only technique and standard that is associated with knowledge and truth.

Empiricists believe that all concepts, knowledge, and scientific overviews are in the end reducible to perceptions and sensations. According to empiricists man acquires his knowledge through the five senses experience. This is by seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, and touching and a person can differentiate between a direct and indirect experience (Hossain 2014). Direct experience is when a person getting familiar with an object by themselves through the five senses. An indirect experience is when the subject is personally involved in the process of knowledge. Traditional empiricism stresses the impossibility of metaphysics and insists on the significance of the experience. An empiricist believes that all priori proclamations are logical and all synthetic proclamations are a posteriori.

Popper’s falsifications approach maintains that the theories of science are categorized by forecasts that observations in the future might appear to be untrue. Once a theory is falsified by such an observation, the response made by scientists is either revising or rejecting the theory. Scientists can also respond by maintaining the theory and altering a supporting hypothesis. In whatever way the scientists decide to respond, the main objective of the process is to produce new falsifiable predictions (Veronesi 2014). Popper maintains that the exercise of science is categorized by its persistence in testing theories contrary to experience and revise them based on the outcomes they get from the tests. Popper argues that his approach approves an outcome for the induction problem.

According to Popper, the probability of falsification characterizes the experimental sciences and enables the demarcation between science theories and the doctrines of metaphysics. The falsifiability of the theories of science is recommended by logic and science history could seem like common sense regulation (Veronesi 2014). If a theory avoids all the processes and appears not to be challenged by an observable element, it should not be taken into account. Popper also defends a predisposition theory of probability, whereby probabilities are understood as objective, mind-liberated elements of structures for experiments. Popper’s argument was contrary to the historicist effort to convey general policies that covered the history of people and rather contended in approval of individual methodology and logic based on a situation.

 Kuhn maintains that science progress is different and has been changing in normal and revolutionary stages. The revolutionary stages are not just stages of speeded up progress but are qualitatively different from normal science. Normal science is similar to the standard collective representation of scientific development. According to Kuhn, mature science faces the interchanging stages of normal science and revolutions. Mature science operates inside a scientific paradigm. A paradigm develops from the standard investigation patterns within the investigation area. These patterns function as models of doing science inside that paradigm (Kuhn 2012). The paradigm that develops from the elementary patterns reflects the guidelines of doing science. Normal science is the everyday investigation that scientists engage in to fill gaps in the knowledge of science that are established in the prevailing paradigms. Kuhn argued that the paradigms contain difficulties that give rise to investigation irregularities. This results in outcomes that the paradigm fails to elucidate and reduces the confidence in the community of scientists in the paradigm. At a particular time, scientists will start to function out of the prevailing paradigm to find resolutions for these irregular outcomes and substitute paradigms will be established.  According to Kuhn, the scientific revolution is when the prevailing paradigm moves to a different paradigm.

Lakatos develops a theory, based on the history of science and its rational reconstructions. Historical episodes have to be treated with respect and should not be transformed into mere illustrations of the principles of some methodology. There is a point that which a rational reconstruction is at variance with the history of science that is not a reconstruction of science any longer (Losee 2004). Lakatos argued that there will be deviations between the reconstruction that is dictated by a methodology and the real course of science. A methodological reconstruction differs from an ordinary repetition of historical developments. Lakatos outlined that all normative reconstructions must be supplemented by empirical external theories to explain the residual non-rational aspects.

The history of science is constantly richer than its rational reconstruction. Even though every rational reconstruction establishing a division between the internal and external history of science, it is still possible to evaluate the competing methodologies. Lakatos's recommendations for the assessment of competing methodologies include selecting a set of competing methodologies and elaborating on the rational reconstruction of scientific progress implied by each methodology (Losee 2004). Next is comparing each rational reconstruction against the history of science. Lakatos argues that his methodology makes rational more of the history of science compared to the other competing methodologies.

Feyerabend argued that there was no progress in science following the rational methodology. He continues to argue that if there has been any progress based on the rational progress, scientists must have not adhered to every rule that has been put down by the rationalists and hence embraced the slogan, “anything goes” (Farrell 2003). This means that anything including intellectual dishonesty may have a valued part to play at some time in the progress of science. It is the competitive pressure between the persistently held and discordant theories that make the development. The scientific methodology does not exist according to Feyerabend, therefore scientific progress is determined not only on the rational dispute but also on the combination of maneuvering, oratory, and publicity.

 Feyerabend has taken his theory to an extensive political end because he argues that there is no true theory and that they should all be given equivalent periods. His argument poses that the immense science that is classified in books and comfortable with the administration inhabits a place in the Western culture lacking parity with the interchange of concepts and the progress of science (Farrell 2003). He states that equal weight should be given to competing ways such as astrology among others. Feyerabend argues that a complex medium that consists of unanticipated developments demand compound procedures. He disregards analysis that is founded on guidelines that have been placed and do not consider altering situations of history. Feyerabend states that anarchism is the remedy for epistemology and science philosophy.

Conclusion

Different people with different ideas have given their ideas about scientific progress. The idea of the empiricists about scientific progress is that sense experience is the only factor that can be used to guide our understanding of the world. Knowledge according to the empiricist is acquired through the five senses experience. Popper shares his idea through the falsification approach which maintains that the progress of science is its persistence in testing theories contrary to experience and revising them based on the outcomes they get from the tests. Kuhn uses the idea of paradigms and argues that mature science faces the interchanging stages of normal science and revolutions. Lakatos bases his theory on the history of science and its rational reconstructions and argues that historical episodes should be treated with respect. Feyerabend's idea was that science does not progress according to a rational methodology and science depends not only on the rational argument but also on the mixture of maneuvering, rhetoric, and propaganda.

References

Farrell, R. P. (2003). Feyerabend and scientific values: Tightrope-walking rationality.

Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Hossain, F. A. (2014). A critical analysis of empiricism. Open Journal of Philosophy, 2014.

Kuhn, T. S. (2012). The structure of scientific revolutions. University of Chicago press.

Losee, J. (2004). Theories of scientific progress: An introduction. Routledge.

Veronesi, C. (2014).  Falsifications and scientific progress: Popper as skeptical optimist. Lett

Mat Int 1, 179–184 https://doi.org/10.1007/s40329-014-0031-7

From Novice to Expert Theory

 Introduction

            Today, individualized nursing care is emphasized in the health care system. This means that nurses should incorporate individual preferences, feelings, and perceptions in delivering care. Also, individualized care means that nurses need both knowledge acquisition and clinical experience. The theory 'from novice to expert' states that in nursing practices, nurses gain new knowledge and skills by passing through different stages.  For example, in the first stage, nurses use theoretical knowledge but lack experience. In the expert stage, nurses use critical thinking skills merely because they are well-educated and they have developed experience.  Benner's framework helps understand individualized nursing care and how nurses develop knowledge through different stages.

Theory description

 According to (Petiptin, 2016), from novice to expert theory states that as nurses enter into the nursing field, they gain experiences and with time, they develop skills and understanding.  In other words, nurses gain new knowledge through skill acquisition. This means that nurses pass through different stages with the help of experience and science. Developing skills and knowledge is a progressive process or it can also be referred to as experiential learning since they engage in various situations where they learn different clinical practices (Petiptin, 2016). Another point that Patricia Benner states is that nurses can move from novice to expert or in other words they can move from a state where they have limited knowledge to a state where they have deeper knowledge and experience through a combination of theoretical foundation and work experiences (Petiptin, 2016). From Novice to expert also indicates that nurses can gain knowledge and skills through research and understanding. This indicates that it is not a must a nurse learn about the theory. What happens is that nurses will move in a progressive process where they will learn abstract principles to intuitive intelligence.

Origin of the theory and the scope/level of the theory.

 The theory was founded between the 1970s and 1980s by Stuart and Dreyfus who researched to understand how students in the American Air Force develop knowledge and skills of becoming an 'expert' pilot (Reed Debbie, 2011). The researchers found that there are five stages of development and students pass through all these stages. Later, in 1984, Benner used this model in the healthcare context.  She researched the theory of novice to expert and found that nurses pass through five states in their professional lifetime.  From novice to expert theory originates from the notion that as nurses enter into the clinical setting, they develop new skills and knowledge (Reed Debbie, 2011). Note that nurses come across the diversity of tasks or they work in a complex environment. As they strive to provide patient care in a complex nature, they develop new skills and knowledge. Another important point to note according to Courtney et al (2008) is that due to technological advancement, nurses have been using the technology to provide care (Reed Debbie, 2011). For example, nurses use computer-based programs such as clinical decision support systems to improve the quality of the care. However, these technologies are not so much helpful as not all nurses find the nursing data relevant to the clinical practice (Reed Debbie, 2011). Therefore, Benner came up with a new support system known as Novice to expert. Rather than using the information technology which is associated with problems such as system failure, ineffective ongoing communication, computer anxiety, usability, and other issues, Benner proposed novice-to-expert theory. Note that the role of the decision support system is to enable nurses to make clinical decisions, and apply evidence-based knowledge. Benner frameworks are connected to the notion that in making clinical decisions, nurses should apply knowledge and experience (Reed Debbie, 2011). However, the clinical decision support system do not put the experience into concern while making decisions. Thus, Benner proposed five concepts that nurses should utilize.

 According to Davis & Maisano, (2016), from Novice to expert theory is in practice or other words, it has been applied in the nursing world and it is being used in the nursing practices.  For example, in 2011, the Pittsburgh hospital used the novice to expert model to educate nurse managers and administrators (Davis & Maisano, 2016).  In the healthcare, the novice to the expert framework has allowed individual nurses to develop knowledge and skills through the five stages. However, it is recommended that nurses in the first stage need mentor support to help them move to the next stage.

Major concepts

  The major concepts of from novice to the expert theory are five concepts namely;

Novice

  In this concept, nurses have entered into the nursing setting but they do not have experience. They still need professional growth for them to use discretionary judgment (Courtney et al. 2008).  Since nurses do not understand the nature of the work, they need clear rules and supervision to direct them. In the first stage, the nurse has gained little knowledge and so they move to the next stage.

 Advanced beginners

  In this stage, nurses have been introduced to the real world and they have developed clinical knowledge in other words they understand the environment they are working in (Courtney et al. 2008). However, nurses still need support to set goals and achieve their goals.  

Competent

 At this stage, nurses have become adapted to the working environment and they can work without supervision (Courtney et al. 2008). They are capable of applying knowledge and skills and more importantly, they can use deliberate planning as well as abstract and analytical thinking.

Proficient

  In this stage, nurses have gained a holistic understanding and can use evidence-based practices. Nurses can focus on situation-specific priorities to meet the requirements (Courtney et al. 2008). However, nurses lack extensive knowledge and in other words, they are unable to solve complex problems.

 Expert

 In this level, nurses have not only gained clinical knowledge but they also use evidence-based knowledge. They no longer rely on rules but they use practical and theoretical knowledge in the practices.

Pick two of the concepts, including your concept of interest, and state theoretical definitions of these concepts.

 Two concepts; novice and expert. From a theoretical definition, the novice theory states that nurses who enter into the nursing field do not have experience and therefore follow instructions to complete tasks (Courtney et al. 2008). On the other, the theory of expert states that nurses have gained experience and have developed new knowledge and skills and therefore they are responsible and intuitive in nursing practices.

Conclusion

 Without question, there is a theory-practice gap in the nursing field. This means that nurses are unable to interpret the general principles in the real-world. They rely on the abstract nursing theory and face challenges in practical application. However, there is a new decision-support tool known as the novice-expert model that allows nurses to make decisions and also gain professional development. Nurses should receive training and recognize these stages. They should learn that at a given time, they should move from one step to the other or within a given time, they should be able to solve problems in different situations using evidence-based knowledge and experience.

References

  Petiptin, Alice (2016).  FROM NOVICE TO EXPERT.  ELITE CAFEMEDIA PUBLISHER. https://nursing-theory.org/theories-and-models/from-novice-to-expert.php

Davis, A., & Maisano, P. (2016). Patricia Benner: Novice to expert-A concept whose time has

come (again). Oklahoma Nurse, 61(3), 13-15.

 Reed Debbie. (2011). Novice to expert.  Springer Nature Limited.  https://www.nature.com/articles/vital1334

Courtney, K. L., Alexander, G. L., & Demiris, G. (2008). Information technology from novice to

expert: implementation implications. Journal of Nursing Management, 16(6), 692-699.

 Application of Theory to Research

Introduction

   Recently, researchers have explored the theory 'from novice to expert' and they have applied it in the research. The theory applies to nursing informatics but today, the theoretical model is also applied in different settings. For example, the theory is applied in educational institutions to evaluate the students' know-how or the knowledge difference between novice and expert students. Researchers also use the theory to evaluate how supervisors within education settings develop academic competencies and promote expertise in supervision. The paper shows that novice and expert students and supervisors solve problems in complex institutions differently due to the difference in the level of self-awareness, confidence, ability, and background knowledge.

Article 1: Use of theory as a framework to support the research

             Hansson et al. (2017) used the theory "from novice to expert" to examine how academic experts and novices' perceive their ignorance and knowledge of their education disciplines. For example, both novice and expert students study similar disciplines like history and physics. When it comes to knowledge assessment, novice students have less knowledge and more ignorance and experts use an objective and a subjective approach to report about the knowledge. In other towards, experts know more, and hence they are aware of what they do not know. Hansson et al. (2017) assert that experts and novices have a different perception of what they know and what they do not know in their field of study. The purpose of the study is to examine their different perceptions.

The participants were students in disciplines such as medicine and physics. Both were novices and experts. Participants (both novice and experts) were asked to conduct knowledge assessment and report what they think they know and what they do not know. The study shows that the experts reported a higher level of knowledge and novice reported a smaller knowledge area (Hansson et al. 2017).The researchers applied the theory in the study to support that experts have a self-awareness that they are experts. Note that experts have a great concept of knowledge and this indicates that they have a deep understanding of their disciplines. The author also applies the theory to show that in conducting knowledge assessment, novices' students have smaller knowledge areas merely because they have faced challenged and therefore they are far behind when it comes to reporting what they know (Hansson et al. 2017). On the other hand, experts report a higher level of knowledge simply because they have practical and theoretical experience within the field of study. The authors assert that a person will take almost 10 years to become an expert. In most cases, experts are people with a Ph.D. whereas Novices are undergraduate students. Note that when experts and novices are in the same field of study, it means that they have a different perception of how they view knowledge (Hansson et al. 2017). For example, the novice has passive expertise which is gained through every-day experience whereas experts have formative expertise which is gained through studying a certain field for many years. Thus, experts have a greater discipline' knowledge and so it is easier for them to see the gap in their knowledge.  

Article 2: Use of theory as a framework to support the research

 In the second application of the theory "from novice to expert" Bazrafkan et al (2019) assert that supervisors play a significant role in assisting students in their research project. Also, supervisors are expected to help students develop competencies such as team skills, specialist skill, and more. However, the article states that for supervisors to achieve their goal, they must have knowledge and experience (Bazrafkan et al, 2019). In this article, the purpose of the study is to examine the expertise development process. The findings show that supervisors can supervise students due to their accountability. Accountability means that supervisors are experts in identifying and meeting the needs of the students. Another point is that supervisors have self-efficacy which is derived from experiences, personal interest, and self-awareness (Bazrafkan et al, 2019).On the other hand, novice supervisors are unable to take effective supervision due to lack of time, structural shortcomings within the institution, changes in the education environment,  increased workload, and lack of information and skills. These supervisors require incentive rules and regulations. They also require enough time for training and updating their knowledge (Bazrafkan et al, 2019). A point to note is that an expert supervisor can supervise students since they have the acquisition of competency. They can evaluate and observe students and they can solve problems. They are also able to apply multiple strategies such as interactive accountability, self-efficacy, self- evaluation, and more (Bazrafkan et al, 2019). On the other hand, novice supervisors are faced with changes such as inadequate time for self-improvement, organizational change, work overload, poorly structured rules, and more.

Conclusion

Irrefutably, the articles have applied the theory to research and have shown that expert students and supervisors in education settings have substantial knowledge and hence they can interpret information and better solve problems. Experts and novices in a variety of fields have different perceptions of knowledge. For example, experts have more accumulation of knowledge and novice have insufficient knowledge. Also, expert supervisors have a great supervisory power merely because of accumulating experience. On the other hand, novice supervisors have not acquired professional practices and they are in the process of developing patterns of practice. They depend on rules and procedures. They also experience barriers to knowledge development and therefore they are constantly challenged.

References

Bazrafkan, L., Yousefy, A., Amini, M., & Yamani, N. (2019). The journey of thesis supervisors

from novice to expert: a grounded theory study. BMC medical education, 19(1), 1-12.

Hansson, I., Buratti, S., & Allwood, C. M. (2017). Experts’ and novices’ perception of ignorance

and knowledge in different research disciplines and its relation to belief in certainty of

knowledge. Frontiers in psychology, 8, 377.

 Marriage promotion program

 Should the current administration continue to promote marriage in low-income communities? Why or why not?

 The Bush administration has proposed a program known as the 'marriage promotion program’, and the purpose of this program is to encourage couples to get married and the unmarried parents to marry (Edin & Kefalas, N.D). A point to note is that the current administration should not promote marriage in low-income communities in that the program won’t achieve its intended purpose of alienating poverty.  For example, the unmarried poor women say that their top priority in life is a career and economic stability. They believe that men will only bring authoritarian personalities in marriages. Women will be forced to depend on the men for financial support and in case the marriage ends, women will enter into the financial crisis (Edin & Kefalas, N.D).Thus, women need economic independence before entering into the marriage. Another point is that marriage is not all about financial achievement. Rather, marriage needs commitment. The program focus on promoting two-parent family but a point to note is that promoting marriage will not help the poor families come out of poverty. The programs should go beyond marriage counseling such as the benefits of marriage to address the reason why the working poor are not in marriage. Marriage is important but the top priority should be the job and financial stability (Edin & Kefalas, N.D). Another point is that marriage promotion focus on encouraging engaged couples to marry. However, marriage will not reduce poverty. Marriage is important but the couples need employment, mental health support, and economically self-sufficient. Thus, marriage will intensify poverty. Marriage promoting programs should address the source of poverty. Before funding the families, the policymakers should create surplus income or living-wage employment. The program should funneling money to other services such as affordable housing and employment. In other words, the program should focus on well-being promotion in society. 

References

Edin, K., & Kefalas, M. (N.D). Promises I can keep: Why poor women put motherhood before

marriage. Univ of California Press.

Letter to Albany Democrat Herald Editor

 Dear Albany community residents, it is my pleasure to bring to light the recent rise in the number of stray cats. This letter informs on measures each one of you can take to help in the matter.

One of the most important things to take note of is the role cats play in the community.  Hence, the projected feeding ban for stray cats may not lead to relevant results. An attempt to starve strays cats within the community may fail since similar bans failed to work in other communities. To attain positive results, we must work together toward a common goal. At the moment the most pressing need is to take care of the rodent issue, prevent cats from eating birds, and messing up the backyard. If you are reading this letter, this means that you are concerned about the plight of the community. To achieve great outcomes, the community needs to get rid of outdated mechanisms and move toward implementing community accepted interventions hence preventing stray cats from disrupting the normal flow of the community activities. Via community initiatives stray cats can be humanely trapped, spayed or sterilized, or immunized, ear-tipped, and even sent back to outdoor environs.

Everyone must play a role in reducing the menacing impact of stray cats. As mentioned earlier, the trap-neuter-return mechanism is one of the most effective manners to combat stray cats and contain the situation from worsening.

 For the sake of bringing the matter into a proper context, stray cats refer to any feline or untamed cat without a home or a human caregiver. Nevertheless, with your contribution, they might still get a chance to live a proper life within manageable surroundings. With help from the county government, residents can begin to provide Trap-Neuter-Return to cat lovers who are willing to adopt the cats into their homes. Here are some of the recommended way of assisting the community- printing and distributing educational material to community members so that they can be informed on the most suitable mechanisms of handling stray cats, procedural mannerism of catering to the needs of the cats without harming them, training them on to catch food and be self-reliant, and how to shelter them under safe and clean surroundings. The methods mentioned above are cost-effective and helps in the management of the entire stray cats and even if one wants he or she can introduce other related programs to take part in the management process in action.

 The quest for a clean community everyone is free to pursue any procedure he or she deems suitable. For instance, all residents from the neighborhood association to children, everyone can take up an active role in the situation and help in the management of the entire situation. You all know this is a community problem and the only way we can deal with it is if we join our hands together and support each other in the quest for a better community. This is not only a call for action but the call to assist each other forge ahead and create something special for the community. In the long run, the need to join hands and mitigate the issue at hand is heading towards us fast enough.

 Please keep in mind that, this letter is not against cat lovers it is a call of action to help stray cats through spaying.  Our communities have lived in harmony with cats for far too long and the coexistence will continue as long the cats are life under manageable conditions. It is up to us to step up and bring about the desired change. Everyone has to live in a community that respects each other decisions without infringing on their human rights. It is important to help cats find a home or put them under the care and supervision of a professional. Thank you for your consideration.

My Experience at an Alcohol Anonymous Meeting

As many people would admit, life is a series of ups and downs. Nothing comes easy in life and anyone willing to achieve the impossible has to put the best foot forward. This statement can accurately sum up my experience at a recent alcoholic anonymous meeting. Many people have succumbed to death due to alcohol abuse. The ability to master your urges is as hard as it gets and this explains the reason many people fall deeper into the addiction. Generally, alcohol addictions are well-hidden problems. Most alcoholics don't come out of their hidden closets hence their alcoholic battles are masked with busy schedules and long hours in the bar. Hence, most people live in denial and tend to keep their addictions a well-hidden secret. In the fight against alcohol, the blame game is a no-go-zone. Each individual has to take up his or her burden and face it head-on. This is the reason alcoholic anonymous meetings are a necessity whenever individuals are fighting alcoholic addictions.

 I am a 57-year-old combat veteran. Attending an alcohol anonymous meeting informs on the invisible struggles people go through in their daily lives. My attendance was duly noted and appreciated at the meeting. From people’s testimonials to the acceptance speeches and finally climbing up the victory lap created joyous memories in my mind. The venue created conducive surroundings for venting out anger and also defeat. No one is perfect. I learned that alcoholic addictions had ruined marriages, destroyed dreams, and drove people to the brink of committing suicides. A bit of patience, love, humility, gratitude, and medicinal treatment are some of the qualities which kept the alcoholics alive and fighting despite the odds against them.

            One of the most outstanding aspects of the alcohol anonymous meeting was open-air conversations. Instead of having a central speaker, all the attendants got a chance to voice out their concerns on alcohol abuse and addiction. The platform was opened to anyone willing to share his alcohol-related experiences. The circular seating arrangement exposed everyone at the venue and gave the impression that no one was bigger or more important than the other. Everyone was a guest. The central theme of the meeting was building faith and then using it to achieve the impossible.  Fighting alcohol addiction is like a game. One may relapse after some weeks. One sip drives one deeper into the abyss of affliction and addiction. The fight is a continuous loop burdened with caution and commitment. Some of the attendants admitted that they used diverting tactics to get their minds off alcohol. For instance, some joined sports and other acquired gym memberships to use up their time on some good other than drinking alcohol. The space and timing of the event were perfect hence giving all the people in attendance time and a chance to speak, complain and find a suitable alcohol program befitting their alcoholic situation.

 Hearing the first-hand experiences from former alcohol addicts built compassion and caring in my heart. Some of the things aired out at the meeting are confidential and I cannot divulge them but they remained arched deep in my heart. I went to the event looking to help out but I returned a changed man. No one can go through some ordeals and live to tell the tale. It was miraculous and amazing to be seated next to this victorious giants. Alcohol is a scourge and from their passionate voices, I had to fight back tears from flowing from my eyes. For example, one of the attendants had battled alcohol for more than 30 years. The testimony of this man was disheartening, yet he soldiered on and kept on talking to the listening audience. In the fight against alcohol addiction, one cannot afford to have a misstep, no matter how small it is, the fight has to be continuous, persistent and even one sip is equated to a million bottles of alcohol. Abstinence is the best medicine while fighting alcohol addiction. One sip or drink can be enough to return a person tor rehabilitation. Moving on is the mantra these people live by on a daily basis. Let go and let God deal with some of the situations that help them to heal and move on. No matter what these people are hell-bent to become better and do better.

In my opinion, fighting alcohol is tricky. It is legally available and accessible to anyone who wishes to indulge in it. This the reason why lawyers, judges, doctors, and even engineers were battling this addiction. Anyone can become addicted to alcohol not only due to its accessibility for persons above 18 years old but also due to negligence and laxity associated with laws governing its sales and circulation. The discipline and sheer force required to stop an addiction required extra commitment. The integration of alcohol into societal norms makes the alcohol addicts fight harder and even pray that everything goes well as they fight against this menace. Some people claimed that while fighting alcohol they changed their social circles and even adopted new routines in order to avoid public spaces that sold alcohol to people. Even though it worked sometimes it did not work because one could be tempted to bring order alcohol from online stores. This surprised me and opened my eyes to various things that people had to do so that they could be free of alcohol. It was an amazing affair about how the meeting was able to bring up different people together with the aim of fighting this scourge.

            I was impressed to learn that this meeting acts as a foundation for more than one recovery program. The thing is one has to step up and register for him or her to be accepted into the venue. Everyone seemed to be happy about the topics being discussed and anyone was free to choose a partner they wanted to walk the journey with. As time goes by and people eventually move out of the trappings of these addictions, in my perspective, these meetings play a crucial role in ensuring that everyone is back on their feet and everything is running as smoothly as possible so that no one relapses back into his normal ways. The meeting was informative, helpful and in my own opinion revealed a side in have never seen in terms of fighting alcohol addiction. Everyone was willing to help the next person and it was a wonderful feeling to be seated amongst one of the greatest people I have ever encountered in life just to say the least.

 Intelligence Collection Methods

Abstract

Intelligence research methods are methods used to collect and gather intelligence information from different sources to help the government in developing national policies and strategies. The five intelligence collection methods include human intelligence. The second method is signal intelligence. The third one is the measurement and signature intelligence method. The fourth method of intelligence is the imagery intelligence and the final one is the open-source intelligence method. The human intelligence methods involve the human sources whereby information is collected by government representatives and could be done through interviews. The signal intelligence includes signal intercepts that work individually or are combined to enable communication transmissions. The measurement and signature intelligence method involve obtaining information through the assessment of data that is obtained from practical devices. The imagery intelligence analyzes photos or images to get information. The open-source intelligence uses publicly available materials to gain information. In a post 9/11 world, intelligence methods help to identify and disrupt terrorist networks. The intelligence methods have played a major role in protecting the people from terrorists and the government in developing new strategies to become more prepared.

Introduction

Intelligence is the product of information that has been collected, assessed, integrated, and interpreted. Intelligence supports American diplomacy, military operations, defense planning, and counters activities that threaten the United States' interests. Intelligence collection is the process of collecting and gathering valuable information from different sources. The main objective of collecting intelligence is to collect and analyze information about foreign people, places, events, and activities that is required by the government to develop national policies and decisions for the future.

There are different methods of collecting intelligence and this includes human intelligence. This is a method that involves the collection of information through human sources. The collection can be done openly whereby witnesses or suspects are interviewed or it may be done through covert means (Margolis 2013). Mostly, human intelligence is done by open collectors, for example, government representatives and armed personnel. This method of collection is the oldest method of intelligence collection and is the primary source of intelligence for all governments. Human intelligence involves open, profound, and secret events and the people who are in control of the sources. Open events are conducted openly and the human intelligence collecting the information may include armed personnel, political workforces, and associates of authorized entrustments.

Sensitive human intelligence undertakings may be contingent on similar methods as open undertakings, nevertheless, the one sponsoring the activity has to be protected from disclosure. If a sponsor is disclosed, the outcome may be a political embarrassment, other intelligence operations may be compromised and the sponsoring party could be threatened. Secret human intelligence sources involve representatives that have been employed or have offered to provide information to another nation. They also include individuals from foreign countries that are successful in infiltrating a company with certain information. This happens rarely and if it happens to occur, they guise themselves as political refugees and once they are in, they place themselves where they are in a position to gather important information for their nations. Even with the rise of technical capabilities, human intelligence is still able to offer information better compared to the technical collectors. Human collectors can provide insights on what an adversary’s intentions are while the technical collection system is only limited to determining capabilities (Evans et al. 2013). Human intelligence can be used in revealing the intentions and plans of the adversary as well as reveal the developments of weapons before the technical intelligence systems detect. Human intelligence is capable of providing documentary evidence, for example, copies of adversary strategies, and policy documents among others. Compared with technical collection systems, human intelligence is cost-effective. Within the United States, the FBI is responsible for human intelligence collection, and beyond the U.S borders, human intelligence is collected by the CIA.

Signal intelligence is another collection method that is derived from signal intercepts that comprise of other signals depending on how they are transmitted, either individually or in combination. The signal intercepts comprise all communication intelligence which is one of the main signal intelligence disciplines and includes information that is removed from intercepted communications transmissions. Its main target is the voice, video, facsimile messages, and is collected from the different transmission mediums (Clark 2013). Electronic intelligence involves interception and analysis of transmissions that are non-communicable, for example, radar. It can determine the location of an emitter, identify its feature, and infer the features of supported systems. Foreign instrumentation signals intelligence comprises of intercepts of telemetry from an adversary’s weapons system as they are undergoing testing. Telemetry units offer information to designers about the sample’s regulation system process, the fuel used, and additional factors that are important in understanding the operational features. The available data enables the designer to assess the way the prototype is performing, however, they enable an adversary to assess the ability of the sample. Signal collection can be accomplished through overt ground collection locations, ships, aircraft, and covert locations. Signal intelligence amenities monitor transmissions from communication satellites and terrestrial amenities and the communication satellites are regularly checked by the foreign intelligent amenities. The National security agency is responsible for the signals intelligence activities.

Measurement and signature intelligence is a scientific and technical collection method. It involves obtaining information by qualitative and quantitative assessment of data that results from technical devices. This is done to identify any distinguishing characteristics connected to the source (Cirillo & Poehler 2006). The findings are used to expedite the latter’s dimension and identification. Measurement is data that is collected to acquire set metric restrictions. Signature on the other hand is the data that indicates the distinguishing characteristics of equipment as they are detected by the gathering instruments. The signature becomes familiar with the equipment when its distinguishing characteristics are sensed. Measurement and signature intelligence include radar intelligence, nuclear intelligence, chemical, and biological intelligence. The defense intelligence agency is the principal user of the measurement and signatures intelligence.

Imagery intelligence which sometimes referred to as photo intelligence is a collection method that analyzes images. It includes images of objects that are produced by electronic means or through film among other means. Imagery intelligence involves the use of data to sense and determine items and is formed from hard or soft copies. The hard copy is from the film while the soft copy is shown from the electric devices. They are evaluated and interpreted for different uses and by different individuals (Burk, Deschapelles, Doty Gayek & Gurlitz 2002). The increase of these systems has increased the use of the products including even in the nations that did not have access to them in the previous years. The imagery commercial market is likely to grow at a higher rate with additional collection systems being developed. The benefit to imagery is that it allows activities to be discovered, it targets features that are observed in detail hence providing a comprehensive outcome.

Imagery intelligence has limitations because the quality can be degraded by a lack of light or hostile weather conditions. This gives the target company ample time to indulge in undertakings that they would not want to be revealed. If a company knows that imagery is their target, they can use different strategies to hide what they are doing or give a confusing picture to the party that is observing them (Firschein & Strat 1997). When the deceptive strategies are used effectively, it can cause an adversary to draw the wrong conclusions about the organization's activities and abilities. Imagery intelligence method of collection requires well educated and technically competent analysts and this is an ability that will be beyond some adversaries. The national geospatial-intelligence agency is responsible for processing and using the imagery.

Open-source intelligence refers to the use of resources that are accessible to the public. It includes information that is obtained from the media, such as newspapers, television, radio, and professional records such as papers and conferences. It also includes information obtained from public data such as government reports, demographics, and speeches among others. Open-source intelligence is not the responsibility of any particular agency but the entire intelligence community. The main advantage of open source intelligence is that it is accessible. With the rise of electric records, it is easy to collect a quantitative amount of data and come up with concrete information (Lowenthal & Clark 2016). This method of intelligence is capable of providing information based on the changing aspects of an organization, practical processes, and the assessment undertakings. When the information is put together, it becomes possible to obtain top-secret data. Analysis of journal articles that have been published by different publishers provides an understanding of research and the developing efforts. Open-source intelligence collection has limitations which include, knowing to what extent the available information is valuable. It is also hard to determine the source of the data and how reliable it is.

 In a post 9/11 world, intelligence is important in identifying and disrupting terrorist networks. The intelligence methods empower law enforcement by finding out about their operations and enable them to identify and disrupt plots before they are executed. Intelligence methods play a significant role in providing evidence at criminal trials. Through them, members of terrorist networks have been identified and their plots have been detected even before they thought of execution (Patel 2013). They have helped to gather important information through interrogation and this has led to the terrorists giving valuable information about the terrorist groups and planned activities. They have helped to protect the intelligence, including the sources and the methods which aided in identifying and disrupting the wrongdoer and his activities. They have helped to guide important decisions concerning who should be brought to justice and how it should be done to ensure success. Otherwise dangerous terrorists could be freed and intelligence lost and this could be putting innocent lives to risk. The intelligence methods have played a major role in protecting the people from terrorists and other dangers and the government in developing new strategies to become more prepared. The police departments have put their focus on intelligence methods towards collecting and gathering information that will help them in the areas that they serve.

Conclusion

Intelligent collection methods are used to collect and gather valuable information from different sources.  The main aim is to develop national policies and decisions for the future and with the best’s interests of the nation. The human intelligence method involves the collection of information through human sources by interviews or covert means. The signal intelligence method involves signal intercepts that work individually or are combined to enable communication transmissions. Measurement and signature intelligence involves obtaining information through the assessment of data that is obtained from practical devices. Imagery intelligence is a method that analyzes imagery to acquire information. Open-source intelligence uses materials that are available to the public to gain information. Intelligence methods in a post 9/11 world are used to provide information and evidence concerning terrorist activities and groups. They have also helped the police departments in collecting and gathering information that is helpful to them.

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