Famous Psychologists 

According to Robert Feldman, Margaret Floy Washburn was the first ever woman to earn a doctoral degree. This made her famous because during the era of the 18th century no married woman during that time would have been a professor or serve as a teacher (Feldman, 2016). She was no married a chance that made her use her research skills and exercises her prolific writing. She was also best known for a motor theory development and the experimental work she carried out in animal behaviors. In 1900 she was in charge of the psychology department as the only woman. Her professional career has made her famous as a major figure in the United States for psychology (Feldman, 2016). Despite her experimental activities in behavior she became interested and got herself involved with the mental processes that have contributed to the school of psychology. She also has significant contributions to psychology school of thought which is behaviorism, functionalism, structuralism and Gestalt psychology.

Karen Horney was born in Germany in 1885. She is known as a psychoanalyst but late in her career, she practiced in the United States. She is famously known for her feminist psychology that was meant to respond to penis envy theory by Freud (Hitchcock, 2004). In this theory, she significantly differs with Freud on the psychology of women and men due to her ability to trace back the cultural and the societal differences rather than on biology. She is also known to be true on sexuality theories with instinct orientation of psychoanalysis. She has also been credited for the theory of Neurosis as she believes it is a continuous process (Hitchcock, 2004). Her analysis has continuously been used in psychology.

Reference

FELDMAN, R. O. B. E. R. T. (2016). UNDERSTANDING PSYCHOLOGY. Place of publication not identified: MCGRAW-HILL EDUCATION.

Hitchcock, S. T. (2004). Karen Horney: Pioneer of Feminine Psychology. New York: Infobase Pub.

Issues in Psychological Testing

1. What are at least two ethical issues associated with psychological testing? What impact do these issues have on the field of psychological testing?

            Psychological testing refers to the tools that are used for psychological evaluation with an aim of measuring and assessing the patients conduct so as to arrive with a diagnosis and guideline for the treatment function. As a result of the introduction of these tests in psychology, there are numerous ethical issues that have emerged. Consent is one of the ethical issues as patients must have an informed consent to the psychological consent on a voluntary basis. Therefore the psychologists should offer the information in a language that the patient can understand (Hogan 2007). Confidentiality is another ethical issue that has arisen from the use of psychological testing. The results of these measurements should be kept a secret and should only be released to the patients only or to other professionals who have the consent from the client (Hogan 2007).

2. What are at least two legal issues associated with psychological testing? How do these issues affect the field of psychological testing?
   
   

            Discrimination is one of the legal issues that affect the psychological testing. This involves the viewpoint that some of these tests violate upon some of the rights of the patient due to the racial and ethnicity differences. The law prohibits psychologists to apply tests and selection types that may result to an unequal and unfavorable discrimination of a patient in regards to sex, ethnic group or even race (Hogan 2007). Legality is another issue that affects psychological testing as psychologists are required by law to offer accommodations for a special group of people such as the disabled. Therefore, the psychologists offer alternative mechanisms in relation to their testing process for the disabled patients (Hogan 2007).

3. Which court case do you feel has had the largest impact on the field of psychological testing? Why?

            Crawford Versus Honig and Pase versus Hannon are some of the cases that brought about changes in the psychological testing. They acknowledged the essence of treatment after diagnosis and they influenced the understanding of intelligence and the factors that determines it (Hogan 2007).

References

Hogan, T.P.(2007). Psychological Testing: A Practical Introduction (2^nd Ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

Personal Reflection 3

Introduction

            Psychology plays an important role in our daily tasks and this is mainly meant for the students.  This means that how the students learn and incorporate their information is mostly influenced by psychology.  Psychology in education comprises of how students learn in the educational basis, the effectiveness of education and the psychology of teaching of schools.  This mainly focuses on how the students learn and grow concentrating much on specific and special groups such as children and those with disabilities.  Thus having the awareness of these specific learning theories and the individual learning style helps to better understand the information as well as developing positive students’ manners. 

            For instance some of the students wish to know the basis of the human behaviors.  This course helps them to have the knowledge concerning the psychological, social and the biological basis of the human behavior.  These students are able to have experience in their assessment on discovering these reasons. The basis of the psychology education is made up of some theories that explain the modes in which people learn new things.   Religion psychology on the students mainly focuses on the application of the psychological ways and the backgrounds of the religious cultures and to the religious and the non-religious persons.  It tries to show the origins and the uses of the religious theories and the manners.  Many concepts of religious faith still remain unknown by psychology.  Religion and faith plays a big role in many lives of people but it is not clear on how its results are positive and sometimes become negative (Belzen, 2012). 

            On how religion influences psychology is on how it gives a description of the investigation matters on whether they are shares on religious basis such as the traditional ritual assessments, personal experiences and the attitudes. The other influence it has on psychology is on the religion history history that is based on psychological terms on the increases of the context and how to clarify the outcomes of the psychological research.  Thus understanding the religion as a meaning evaluation influences the motivation, cognition and the social connections of the psychological education students (Belzen, 2012). 

            Religion is also influenced by the psychology as while studying the personal religious experiences, William James who was an American psychologist made a difference between the healthy minded and the spiritual souled religiousness.  Those who are focused on the healthy minds about the religion ignore the evil in the world and concentrates on the positive and the good things.  Those who focus on the religion spiritually ignore evil and the suffering and thus needs a joining experience based on religion and they reconcile good and the evil.  This is seen to have the influence in that the persons who believe and acts according to the religious wishes and their actions works out, their actions becomes the proper choice of the person.  Thus if the religious practice have less effectiveness, there is no reason for continuing to do it (Belzen, 2012). 

            Prejudice and aggression works together in sustaining social equality in America. The horrible mistreatments in the recent history of America like that of the Jews, African American women has been the huge incentive for the study of prejudice and aggression.   According to the study of the social psychology, prejudice and aggression has moved to the current religious beliefs and manners that can be said to be positive.  Thus prejudice and aggression in America gives us the theoretical background and the interventions in the aim of reducing them (Chin, 2004). 

Conclusion

            The social psychologists therefore helps us deal with the factors that help us behave in appositive way on the other people’s presence and focus on the status under which specific manners and actions happen.  The social psychology is the way of acting the way these feelings, beliefs and the purposes are based on it  where it also influences the people’s connections with others. 

Reference

Belzen, J. A. (2012). Psychology of religion: Autobiographical accounts. New York: Springer.

Chin, J. L. (2004). Racism in America. Westport, Conn: Praeger Publi.

Psychology behind Violence

Introduction

Child abuse can be described as the situation where a parent or the person taking care of the child acts or fails to act, causes serious harm to a child even death, injuries and emotional harm eventually leading to the entire harm in the child. There are several forms of child violence and abuse including physical abuse, sexual maltreatment, neglect, emotional abuse and even exploitation. All these factors ensure the life of a child is not only affected biologically but psychologically and emotionally as well. Most people have reported have gone through child abuse during their childhood and thus there are many signs of child abuse which people should be on the lookout. More than 20% of adults have reported having undergone sexual abuse during their childhood years. This shows that many children undergo abuse either from parents or other people and fail to report. Many children are neglected physically, emotionally and end up lacking educational and medical support. All these abuses interfere with the growth and development of children and thus they are affected not only psychologically but socially and biologically as well. Therefore this paper will focus on child violence mainly focusing on the biological, psychological and social theories of child abuse.

Biological Theories of Child Abuse

Researchers have found out that child abuse interferes with the brains of not only those affected but other people in the following generations. Research has found out that when children are rejected by their mothers at very early ages, their brains produces little amounts of a useful chemical known as serotonin which passes on impulses into the brain (Starr & Wolfe, 1991). Low levels of this chemical indicates depression in people since their childhood years were stressful and full of anxiety. In addition research shows that abused females who in turn ended up becoming abuse parents had little amounts of serotonin compared to those abused females who did not become abusive parents. Biology indicates that some abused females become abusive parents while some are not abusive though the research has not given the reasons of such occurrences (Pandey, 2007). In addition some researchers suggest that giving abused children drugs rich in serotonin will prevent them from becoming abusive parents in future since their serotonin levels will be high. Research has shown that child abuse has an effect on the brain development and thus many abused children often become abusers since they have watched the behavior of their parents. Adults who were exposed to stress nod depression at tender ages are seen to release stress hormones known as cortisol more than normal as they respond to the disturbing situations (Pandey, 2007). Cortisol is harmful since it can lead to death of useful brain cells that are involved in emotion and memory regulation and control respectively. With time increase in cortisol is harmful to a person’s body since it will eventually cause depression and impair the endocrine (Pandey, 2007). Research indicates that children who face abuse at tender ages eventually get severe depression at their adult ages because of the effect of the cortisol.

Child maltreatment has been researched to alter or interfere with the immune system. High levels of stress in childhood interfere with the behavior of the macrophages which are the cells that respond to any infection thus preventing occurrence of a possible infection (Pandey, 2007). Stress ensures that these cells are interfered with and thus respond excessively which leads to a possible infection. This clearly shows that child abuse affects the normal lives of the victims and causes severe depression at adult ages. Children who were abused grow and develop with much stress thus their health is usually at a risk and are exposed to a number of illnesses such as the heart diseases and severe depression (Pandey, 2007). Thus abused children need to be given medical care in order to prevent occurrence of diseases later in their adulthood ages. More than a million children in America are abused annually and neglected and it is estimated that the number is on the rise instead of declining showing that abused children eventually becomes abusive parents. In addition the different types and forms of child maltreatment increase the chances of mental diseases and sexual dysfunction. The children are exposed to early stresses since their brains are stressed much which can affect their mental uprightness thus the abuse is a threat to development and growth of children in a healthy manner (Pandey, 2007). Females who were victims of child maltreatment are at a risk of giving birth to kids with the autism disorder compared to females who were not abused at tender ages. Thus child abuse affects the child biologically by causing diseases and interferes with the brain development as well as the general growth and development a normal child is supposed to get.

Psychological Theories of Child Abuse

Psychological theories show the psychological part of the abuse whereby most of the abused children end up becoming abusive parents later on. Attachment theory is one of the theories which affect children psychologically since children who are abused are deprived off their maternal attachment (Briere, 1992). Most of the children who are separated from their mothers during those early years end up developing psychological and sociological disorders which interfere with their growth. Thus children need to be attachment to their mothers for purposes of psychological and physical protection and security. When children are denied this and instead abused, they develop problems which affect them later on in life where they become abusive parents and thus the process is spread from one generation to the next generations. Poor attachments of children and their mothers are seen as causes of child abuse since mothers neglect their children at early stages where the children need them the most (Scannapieco & Connell-Carrick, 2005). Children who are abused at their early ages often develop stress and eventually get to the state of depression since they were not attached and loved by their mothers. This theory explains the importance of child mother attachment since children who are loved at their early stages develop normally without any stress and depression and thus remain healthy unlike those children who are abused. Physical abuse does not affect the psychological theory much compared to sexual abuse and emotional abuse. Children who are emotionally and sexually abused suffer more psychologically compared to those who were physically abused.

Learning theory is another example of psychological theory since it shows that children who grew up observing violent behavior from parents and were abused in the process often learn that behavior and end up practicing the behavior (Scannapieco & Connell-Carrick, 2005). Children who were abused end up becoming abusers since they learnt those violent behaviors through observing their parents thus practice it later on in life. This theory however has some limitations since it fails to explain why some parents become abusive while they did not suffer child abuse. It is important to note that children develop as they observe other peoples’ behavior thus observing negative behavior interferes with their psychology and they end up copying those behaviors even though they are wrong. Most parents who suffered abuse when they were children fail to give and show love to their children since they were denied that too (Jenny, 2011). They do not know how to show love since they were not showed that love and instead they were neglected and abused by those people who supposed to take good care of them. Such parents lack the character traits of showering their children with love. It is expected that children need to be well taken care of since they need to grow and develop well psychologically and physically in good health. However, abused children lack this care and end up reciprocating the abuse to their children. Mothers play a major role in ensuring their children develop well without neglecting them and where the child lacks the motherly love, problems arise and in most cases the problems interfere with the psychologically growth and development of the children (Jenny, 2011). Therefore these theories show the importance of ensuring children are well taken care of especially in their childhood years.

Social Theories of Child Abuse

Social learning theory is one of the theory supporting child abuse and explains that the behavior of children if affected by the surrounding people or the community. Most abused children learn the characteristics of abuse from those who abused them (Jenny, 2011). In addition most children observe the abusers and learn from them and later practice that in future. Most of the abused children learn the abusive behaviors from the abusers and end up becoming abusive adults in the society. Thus violence or abuse from thus theory is transmitted from one person to the next and indeed passed on to other generations. Research indicates that most of the abused children end up committing social crimes compared to those who were not abused in their childhood years (Sturt, 2006). Most of the children who were abused are involved in crimes since they were not taught how to follow the right way and were often neglected. It is important to learn that this theory ensures that child abuse cases are reduced in order to prevent occurrence of possible crimes in our current society. Children need to be showered with love by parents and the community people and therefore learn life traits and skills from the surrounding people instead of being neglected and learning antisocial behaviors (Sturt, 2006). This theory shows that most children who were not supported during their childhood years end up learning negative behaviors from other people and other children. Such children develop and grow in a negative manner since they do not know what is expected of them by the society because they were not taught important life lessons by the caretakers or mothers.

The family system theory is another example of a theory that focuses on the social composition of a child. Families have the key roles in ensuring their children develop and grow in the upright manner and that they are showed with love (Sturt, 2006). Children learn behaviors from families first then the outside world. This shows that families which abuse their children play a major role in depriving off the maternal love from the parents and thus children denied that end up being bad people in the society. Study shows that crimes which are mainly caused by child abuse are increasing annually since child abuse cases are on the rise in many states (Sturt, 2006). The theory shows that children who were abused will commit crimes twice as much compared to those children who were not abused. Children who were abused are likely to engage in illicit activities compared to those children who were not abused thus showing the impact of abuse on children is way negative. The numbers of runaway youths is increasing with 50% mounting to those children who were physically abused. Prostitution is increasing in the society annually but research has showed that 60% of those who practice prostitution were sexually abused during their childhood days (Horton & Cruise, 2001). This is a big number indicating that the more children are abused sexually the more the levels of prostitution since most of the prostitutes were sexually abused at early ages. Most of the inmates were found out to have been abused during their childhood days with over 60% having confirmed they were subjected to child abuse (Sturt, 2006).

Most of the abused children suffer various consequences since they cannot relate with other people socially since they have been subjected to stress throughout their lives (Horton & Cruise, 2001). Such children choose to subject themselves in crimes since they were not installed with the right behaviors since they had to no one to take good care of them. Such children end up becoming violent thus engaging themselves in antisocial behaviors such as crimes. Research shows that most of the drug abusers are those people who were subjected to child abuse. Most of the drug and alcohol abusers were in one or another abused as children thus find comfort in drugs and other crimes (Horton & Cruise, 2001). This shows that children need to be loved if the crime rate is expected to reduce since those children who have been abused are violent and end up engaging in crimes. Parents need to love their children and teach them important and useful behaviors in their lives instead of subjecting them to abuse and allowing them to become criminals who end up in jails.

Conclusion

From the above discussion, we can drive conclusions that child maltreatment is wrong since it affects overall the composition of a child ranging from psychological to physical growth and development. Most children are left with scars which might not appear physically since they are affected emotionally. Abused children need to get help at earlier ages instead of growing up with the scars that will end up interfering with their lives. People should be ready to learn the most common signs of child abuse for them to help the abused children. Most of the abused children end up becoming abusive people in future thus the trend or cylix is passed on from one generation to the next. Child abuse should be stopped since it has various bad consequences not only on the health of the child but emotional development as well. Most of those who were subjected to child abuse end up becoming criminals and bad people in the community.

References

Starr, R., & Wolfe, D. A. (1991). The Effects of child abuse and neglect: Issues and research.      London: Guilford.

Briere, J. (1992). Child abuse trauma: Theory and treatment of the lasting effects. Newbury         Park, Calif: Sage Publications.

Pandey, S. (2007). Psychological consequences of child abuse. New Delhi: Concept Pub. Co.

Scannapieco, M., & Connell-Carrick, K. (2005). Understanding child maltreatment: An   ecological and developmental perspective. New York: Oxford University Press.

Jenny, C. (2011). Child abuse and neglect: Diagnosis, treatment, and evidence. St. Louis, Mo:             Saunders/Elsevier

Horton, C. B., & Cruise, T. K. (2001). Child abuse and neglect: The school's response. New        York, NY [u.a.: Guilford Press.

Sturt, S. M. (2006). Child abuse: New research. New York: Nova Science Publishers.

Group Dynamics Cohesiveness Social Psychology

            Social relations group dynamics may be referred to as a system of behaviors occurring within a social group. Studying group dynamics is always useful for one to understand decision making behavior, to track the spread of diseases in a given community, create good therapy techniques and follow the emergence of new ideas. Evolutionary theory tells us that humans’ evolvement is best equipped to survive when working in groups (Toseland & Rivas, 2012). However, as humans strive to work in group, there are factors that affect team cohesion making it unproductive. These factors are environmental, personal or leadership factors. This work plan is going to address the probable problems that might be in existence within ACE team of specialists and the possible suggestions to correct the situation.

            One of the problems that bring a negative group dynamics is poor leadership. A team with a weak leader will always have one member more dominant and may eventually take charge. This can lead to lack of proper direction, fighting among members or wrong priorities being focused on. Under leadership, there rise other problems that limit team cohesion (Toseland & Rivas, 2012). There are instances when a leader lacks skills to deal with a particular group of people. There are leaders who can effectively manage a smaller team than a bigger and when given a bigger team, he or she may fail to control it fully brining negative effects in the team. Leaders are also sometimes characterized by intolerable behaviors unfamiliar to the team for example being so rude and strict to the team, ignoring the important opinions from the team and creating a bigger gap with the rest of the team members. This kind of environment is not healthy for cohesiveness hence might be one of the reasons why the ACE team is not productive.

            Bad communications may also affect the productivity and effectiveness of the team (Toseland & Rivas, 2012). Communication may be amongst members or between members and their leader. This can be observed during team meetings and other activities occurring within the team. If members can share important views then come into agreement, then they are most likely to be productive, whereas members who always collide in their communication, are always less productive. With good communication, an effective leader can assign tasks to team members and hold them accountable for their contributions hence inciting good communication and preventing social loafing.

            Excessive deference to authority may also affect the cohesion of the team (Forsyth, 2010). This happens when people want to be seen agreeing with the leader’s opinions hence holding back from their own opinion which could be more helpful and important for the team. Sometimes, people tend to keep quite with their opinion if the leader is authoritative and strict and cannot consider their views even if aired out. Similarly, people tend to hold back their opinions in fear of being disapproved by the leader.

            Blocking is also another way one can limit cohesion within a team. This occurs when team members behave in a manner that disrupts information flow within among the team members. This can be done in several forms; one may act as an aggressor by usually disagreeing with the views of others. The negator is a member who is always criticizing other people’s views (Forsyth, 2010). Withdrawer is a member who does not always take part when it comes to discussion. There is also a recognition seeker who is boastful and always tends to dominate the session. A joker is that kind of a person who brings in humor in a wrong time. A team consisting of such people becomes difficult to control and faces hard time when it comes to decision making.

            Group thinking is also a dangerous factor that may affect cohesion within a team. This occurs when people put their desires first when placing a desire for consensus to reach the right decision. This mentality prevents them from exploring alternative solutions and can also lead to social loafing (Forsyth, 2010). This will normally cause disagreement when it comes to decision making.

            Free riding may also lessen productivity among members of a team. In this case people tend to take work with a slight concern and can leave their colleagues to do most of the work. Free riders have a tendency of working hard on their own but detain their contributions in group situations (Forsyth, 2010). Having such members in a team reduces productivity.

            Evaluation apprehension may also affect team cohesion. This occurs when team members have negative perceptions like a feeling that they are being treated harshly by other members (Levi, 2011). With such perceptions, they tend to hold back their views hence limiting collaboration within the team for better results.

            To sum it all, team cohesion in a team can be limited by lack of focus. A team leader should be responsible of keeping the team focused for instance by assigning duties to members and enforcing accountability, using an agenda and distributing it to members earlier before the meeting (Levi, 2011). This can help to prepare members on the topics to be discussed in order to come with proper views helpful to the team.

            Certainly, every situation has possible ways on how they are corrected. To reestablish productivity in the ACE team, it must start with the leader by implementing the following; the leader must know the team he or she is leading. This is by analyzing all stages of development that a team may undergo. This can help him preempt problems most likely to arise in the course. Secondly, the leader must be able to notice a problem and tackle it quickly (Levi, 2011). If he notices a certain behavior affecting the team by any of the members, the leader must act responsibly and quickly to challenge it. After noticing a behavior from a team member, a leader must always provide a feedback to show that particular member the impact of her actions so that she may be able to reflect and change for the better mate of the organization.

            It is also important to define roles and responsibilities to every team member such that every member is accountable to a particular duty. This can encourage hard work hence observable results. Improve on communication since it is vital for good team dynamics, therefore it should be ensured that everyone is in good communication within the team (Levi, 2011). This can be done by including all forms of communication used by the group for example emails, shared documents so that every member is in position to air out his or her opinion about the team and all members are able to get all the information pertaining the team. It is also important to observe how all members in the team interact so as to improve in case unfavorable. Therefore with these suggested views, the situation of ACE may be corrected.

References

Toseland, R. W., & Rivas, R. F. (2012). An introduction to group work practice. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Forsyth, D. R. (2010). Group dynamics. Belmont, Calif: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.

Levi, D. (2011). Group dynamics for teams. Los Angeles: SAGE.

Theories of Psychology in Leadership

Leadership has been so much a big issue where many have done some research to come up with the exact figure of what leadership should entail. This has been achieved in different set ups by different psychologists and in different ways. In this case there are several ways in which this has been expressed and brought forward by the writers. They have different theories concerning the same issues with a common goal of improving leadership in different setups. This theories are taken by people for studying and consideration of the validity of the information to their practices in leadership. Therefore, they influence the society in a big way through how that leadership has currently become easier for any leader who is practically working. This essay therefore, is an analysis of theories from Chris Gardner and Walt Disney concerning leadership in diverse situations and the ethics of leadership.

There are many other lessons that can be learnt from Disney concerning leadership. However there are the known three best theories which would have been used to propel and individual’s journey of leadership. The very first states that as a leader, an individual should shut up and get to work (Nohria, Khurana & Anand, 2010). According to Disney the only way to get started doing something is to stop talking and go ahead taking actions. In this case a great leader should be in a position to have a vision and the guts to see prior what needs to be done and take the action of doing it as fast as possible. He or she should be in a position to read a situation in advance and have glimpse or a clear understanding of what should be done and actually pivot his or her organization in the relevant direction to have immediate action on it. He really doesn’t discourage talking about the r what should be done he believes getting started is actually much better. This theory should be implemented with precautions taken in understanding that every step that is to be taken is very important and requires appropriate discussion and strategic planning (Crawford, Brungardt, & Maughan, 2005). With this well instituted it then becomes easy to do as Walt expresses in this theory which is just to do it.

Theoretically Disney believes in leadership through coordination and inspiration to be a practical and doable means to successful leadership. Of all the things that he found to have done in leadership, coordinating the talents of those people he worked with and having the confidence to point them to a certain goals was key (Branson, 2009). Himself, he was a leader all round in shape, form and way. He is a leader to still pick and look upon with reference to his practical leadership in the field. The way he led his team, directing the staffs of artists on how exactly he wanted his characters drawn. His aspiring tone during times of giving directions was so attractive that everyone felt the urge to jump in and participate in doing it. The only fault that would be found in his working was also one where they worked in coordination with the late Steve Jobs where at times they were viewed as too intense a people to work with (Nohria, Khurana & Anand, 2010). They made revolutions that benefited people out of their great impact on people, intensity and focus on their goals. However they made the biggest difference in people’s life, shone the brightest but left too soon. He, Disney might have been at times an ultra-intense leader with his team he was inspiring to them. He was fabulous in ensuring that he coordinated with them in which direction to take pertaining a particular project. The other theory that Disney find applicable and even fun to try is making possible that which seems impossible. He says that making this happen is just a matter of mind setting where he insists on individuals having envision of succeeding. This is by first visualizing the success, dreaming about it happening, making it happen and finally believing in that which you have done.

Similarly, on reading between the lines of Christopher Gardner’s story there are also many amazing qualities of leaders that are worth to be noted and acted upon. These qualities are inclusive of respect, persistence, enthusiasm of continuous learning and agility. This are also expressed theoretically and have helped him to ultimately reach his goals and to fulfil his potential (Crawford, Brungardt, & Maughan, 2005). His persistence despite the many setbacks he has been though he never gave up on trying the same thing for more than once. He never let anyone tell him he could not do something, he had a dream and had to protect. He is in agreement with the theory of Disney that if you want something one should go ahead and get it. Also continuous learning, he is the kind of person who believes that an individual should never stop learning. This continuous learning is highly critical for all not only for leaders but also for the whole organization. This is highly regarded especially for leaders who are willing to grow both professionally and personally and even extend it by teaching others (Branson, 2009). He also in who he is in his engagements teaches that setback are a way of life that should not shutter down the dreams and visions of a leader or an individual.

References

Top of Form

Nohria, N., Khurana, R., & Anand, B. (2010). Handbook of leadership theory and practice: An HBS centennial colloquium on advancing leadership. Boston, Mass: Harvard Business Press.

Top of Form

Branson, C. M. (2009). Leadership for an age of wisdom. Dordrecht: Springer.

Top of Form

Crawford, C. B., Brungardt, C. L., & Maughan, M. (2005). Understanding leadership: Theories & concepts. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

Bottom of Form

Bottom of Form

Bottom of Form

Psychology, Common Sense, and Beliefs

            There is a major difference between common sense and science in that common sense is natural and it has to do with immediate context or in other words common sense solves practice problems in daily lives. Common sense is biological and it is used for survival, social integration and in circumstantial situations (DOUGLAS, 2000).  On the other hand, science deals with world and mechanism and it requires a level of understanding.  Science arises from the desire for knowledge in understanding the universe.  First, in order to see the connection between the common sense and beliefs, it important to understand that people feel that they are using their common sense when they  do their activities effectively  in common circumstances (DOUGLAS, 2000). Thus, common sense provides beliefs to peoples that they have the moral character.  The connection with belief arises when   people understands that the common sense is a factual opinion on a specific phenomenon.  Thus, they have the beliefs that common sense are from common knowledge. Thus, the connection relates with people’s behavior in such a way that both offer fundamental assumptions (DOUGLAS, 2000).

Belief perseverance is when people cling on their initial thoughts in unjustifiable manner.  The beliefs hey hold are unwarranted beliefs as they do not have any evidence (DOUGLAS, 2000).  According to various researches, it is found that people are not interested to know the new information even if they find the preexisting beliefs are false.  Problem arises when people come across scientific information which contradicts with preexisting beliefs.  They usually reject new ideas as they cannot reject their prior beliefs. Belief perseverance interferes with critical thinking as people clings on their original understanding to avoid contradictory messages (DOUGLAS, 2000).   Instead of thinking critically, they hold their prior beliefs.  After reading a text and gaining new ideas, they   take a long time to change and the change also becomes unstable.  This means that they don’t think critically neither do they examine and rethink but rather they use their initial beliefs to reinforce their position (DOUGLAS, 2000).

To ensure critical thinking, I would employ these strategies. First, is identifying the purpose. In making decision, I have learnt that I will find the purpose of that decision (Paul & Elder 2003). The purpose will act as the starting point and using the critical thinking I will employ the basic skills. Second is considering the implication of choice. By identifying the implication, I will be able to improve the decision by using different viewpoints. Third, I have leant that in critical thinking, it is important to employ the most useful ideas which will bring positive results (Paul & Elder 2003).

Reference

DOUGLAS L. NANCY (2000). ENEMIES OF CRITICAL THINKING: LESSONS FROM SOCIAL

PSYCHOLOGY RESEARCH. University of Michigan-Dearborn, Dearborn, Michigan, USA

Paul Richard and  Elder Linda (2003). Critical Thinking: Teaching Students How To Study And Learn

(Part 111).  Copyright © 2003 EBSCO Publishing.

Research your personality type

The first two personality type websites are ESTJ versus INFP which seems to coordinate.  The first principle is Extraversion versus Introversion which reflects the foundation and the direction of a person’s energy and appearance. Jung explained that in every person, any of the four functions is main that is either a function of perception or a function of judging.  Sensing versus Intuition shows the ways in which a person distinguishes evidence.  Sensing means that a person believes information directly from the outside world.  Intuition means that mainly believes the information they get from the inventive world. The third principle thinking versus Feeling shows how information is handled a person.  Thinking means that a person makes sensibleness decisions while feeling means a person makes decisions according to their emotions.  The forth criterion which is judging versus perceiving shows how a person uses the information they have handled. Judging means that a person forms all his life happenings and sticks to these plans while perceiving means that a person may be motivated to create and discover substitute choices (Myers, 1995).  

The other website is INTP.  This is a principle that seeks to form reasonable clarifications for everything that gives interests to persons.  The notional and intelligent, and are more interested in notions than the social interaction.  These persons are also quite, controlled, flexible.  They have uncommon ability to concentrate on the way of solving problems where they are interested. Jung called Extraversion versus Introversion preference as a universal arrogance since it shows the person’s assertiveness towards the outside world that is differentiated by the movement of the general concentration.  This means that the extravert sustains the affinity and the energy sources from the outside world whereas the introvert means that their concentration is moved towards the inner world (Myers, 1995).

Reference

Myers, I. B., & Myers, P. B. (1995). Gifts differing: Understanding personality type. Palo Alto, Calif: Davies-Black Pub.