Essentials of Psychology Case Study Project

Case Study 1: The Woman Who Dreams of Stress

1. Arlene is worried that her recent dream experiences indicate that something is wrong with her. If you were Arlene’s friend and wanted to reassure her, how would you help her to understand the normal experience of sleep and dreams?

As Arlene’s friend, I would make sure that she understands that stresses are part of life and it is important to learn how to address them. Now that she has been in this tough condition I would comfort her by explaining that dreaming about events that stress us is a common experience, which does not necessarily mean that there is a problem with her. Also, I would make her understand that various research has proved that dreams and nightmares are impacted by our daily experiences. She is currently experiencing difficulties with the new machine and huge lumps of work, which are making her anxious and stressed during the day, which can be the cause of the bad dreams. She is a lady and studies have revealed to us that out of 150000 dreams that an average person dreams by the age of seventy, 10 percent of women dream of failure. I would advise her to get organized and instead of thinking of the work as a whole to set up small goals, in her limit, and work towards meeting them and not of the whole giant.

2. Which theory of dreaming seems to best explain Arlene’s disturbing dreams and why?

A theory that can be deemed to explain Arlene’s disturbing dream is the activation-synthesis theory. The latter theory was proposed by psychiatrist J. Allan Hobson, stating that dream scenario is related to dreamer’s concern during the day. In my perspective, this theory suits best Arlene’s case as her dream is based on daily experiences. This makes Arlene spend much of the time awake stressed and concerned with her huge workload. Now due to the daily stress experiences, her brain forms scenarios about her anxiety at work the moments she gets to sleep.

3. How might meditation help Arlene?

Mediation is useful as keeps the individual relaxed. Additionally, mediation has been one of the helpful tools that help individuals develop new insights on a problem that has been long-running over the mind. Based on the current state, mediation would help Arlene come up with new approaches that can help her face the new huge workload with ease. It would also help her eliminate the fear about the new software that she struggles with getting to understand its functionality. Meditating regularly would be one of the most essential strategies that would help Arlene keep in a relaxed state of mind, this helps her keep pace with the work and sleep when the time to sleep comes.

4. If you were Arlene’s health care provider, how would you advise her to overcome her insomnia?

Various ways have been formulated to help overcome insomnia. One of the promising strategies that I would encourage Arlene to do if I were her health care provider, is to ensure that she embarks on serious exercise on daily basis and avoid naps, this would be helpful since Arlene has become tired. When individuals get tired, it is always easy for them to fall asleep and very indeed sleep peacefully. More importantly, Arlene should ensure that she has a set bedtime, this will enable her body to develop an internal timer that would be guiding her sleep every night. Also, I would tell her to avoid caffeinated beverages such as coffee and the caffeinated energy drinks she has been taking.

5. What are some effects on Arlene of her high caffeine intake? What would happen if she just suddenly stopped drinking coffee and energy drinks? How would you advise her to modify her caffeine use?

High caffeine has some adverse effects on the body. Commonly they cause above-stated insomnia and anxiety. Generally, caffeine is an addictive substance, and its withdrawal is associated with headaches and depression. I would, therefore, advise her to slowly cut off the consumption of caffeine bit by bit, or choose to use herbal tea as a substitute for a hot beverage before she sleeps.

Case Study 2: John Buckingham, the New Guy on the Job

1. What does the behavior of John’s co-workers toward John suggest about their attributions for his initial manner of dress?

Based on how John’s co-workers react to him, I believe this is a show of Fundamental Attribution Error. This is a situation where people base their arguments on a single characteristic of an individual, for instance, John’s clothing style. In this context, the official definition can be attributed to the tendency to over-state other people’s behavior. Also, the dispositional cause would help minimize the importance of ‘foreign’ situational cause, that John’s co-workers saw him dressed in a suit thus becoming uptight around him. It is because of the same clothing that he receives different treatment. However, with time when he starts to dress on the jeans and western t-shirts just like them, they become more relaxed and get much open to him.

2. Describe the kinds of biases that might have affected John’s co-workers as they formed impressions of him on his first day. Could they have been using a faulty schema to understand him? Is there evidence of the halo effect?

The co-workers portray bias and judge John on faulty schema based on the dressing. His dressing code was indeed better and more professional than that of the co-workers, which makes them put him in a bad schema giving him an attribute of being less approachable. Also, there is evidence of the halo effect, which is evident as the workers base their opinions and expectations on John’s clothing.

3. Explain why John changed his manner of the dress so soon after starting his new job. What processes were likely involved in his decision to do so?

Upon arrival at the new job, he notices that he is the only odd one out. The only option left was to change his dressing code so that he can fit in the new job environment. People in the new job do not put on suites, which made them not talk to him. Therefore, he had to change the norms and social conditions in the new office, soon changing his appearance, which made his co-workers treat him like others in the office. With time John becomes accepted only by choosing to change his dressing code.

4. John’s co-workers seemed very hesitant to “warm-up” to John. How would you explain to John their initial reluctance to like him very much?

In this context, I would explain to John that the co-workers were first reluctant to welcome him because they held a stereotype. The latter was based on his first-day experience and dressing. Co-workers see john as a strict businessman based on the suit, instead of seeing him as a unique individual with personal characteristics. They stereotyped him as severe and over top, clothed this design and comparing him with the jeans and the cowboy they wore.

5. If you were the human resource director for this company, what strategies could you employ to prevent experiences like John’s? How would you justify the implementation of these strategies to the company president?

It is always not a good experience when you visit a place for the first time and every individual feels uncomfortable with you. Thus to avoid this experience it is essential to put good strategies, some of which include holding an orientation meeting each time a new face is brought to the office. The meeting would be in form of conversation to encourage the new staff to share information about themselves with the current staff. This makes both staff familiar as this platform provides the workers with an opportunity to ask questions, encouraging communication. For the implementation, I would justify by explaining to the company’s president the achievements of this strategy. I will explain how this procedure is useful in reducing stereotypes even without a proper introduction.

Resources: Feldman, R. (2019). Psychology and Your Life with P.O.W.E.R Learning

Feldman, R. (2019). Psychology and Your Life with P.O.W.E.R Learning. [VitalSource

Bookshelf]. Retrieved from https://online.vitalsource.com/#/books/978126099861

Psychedelics and How It Effects Your Creativity

Introduction and background information.          

Psychedelics are psychoactive substances that are believed to affect an individual perception in terms of their moods and cognitive processes. It is considered to increase the activity of the unconscious mind in the process. They are considered hallucinogens as they are known to cause hallucinations to the patient or an individual taking the drug but are known to be safe as they do not cause addictions to the users. The name was made up by Humphrey Osmond in 1957, after identifying their effect on the mind, thus demonstrating their capability making it be considered useful o the mind[1]. Osmond introduced mescaline, where the drug was used in the treatment of alcohol addiction, and the result indicated that most of his patients demonstrated high success compared to other forms of therapy in coping with addiction. The psychedelics development led to the development of the commonly used drug LSD, which was later banned after the research on how it affects the brain by affecting the areas that control perception and cognition.

            Psychedelics plants were used in ancient times by the non-western culture in the religious ceremony. In the shaman, the plants are used spiritually by the religious leaders to use it to the transformation done through drumming and chanting. The action causes the user to experience dreamlike experiences where they were believed to communicate with the spirit in their spiritual world[2]. The people who took part in the Takiwasi experienced physiological reaction in their body that caused them to have nausea, vomiting, diarrhea cases of dizziness, and an irregular heartbeat rhythm and hallucination cases. The ritual in Takiwasi is known to be incorporated with the catholic belief to be used in exorcism; in this context, the participant ayahuasca ritual explains the presence of supernatural beings giving them the religious protection of the community by the beings.

            In the professional output, the psychedelics drugs are known to increase the creativity and productivity of the users known to take small doses of the psychedelics. The current research on psilocybin shows that they can affect the brain processes as pharmacological agents in brain stimulation[3]. The psychedelics users explain to have increased creativity in the taking of the LSD and seem to facilitate high problem-solving ability in them. Despite the advantages in the increased creativity the drugs are known to cause short term effect in the users that includes an increased heartbeat rate and cases of nausea while in the long-term effect the drug was known to cause persisting hallucinogenic perception disorder. In the pharmacological field, the drugs are used in therapy in the treatment, such as addiction, depression, and anxiety in the patient.

Research question and related sub-questions.

            What effects do psychedelics have on the user’s creativity and productivity in terms of their brain processes?

            What are some of the health effects associated with the consumption of drugs to improve our creativity?

                                                            Case material

             The research will focus on the shaman people as a community known to use the drug for religious and cultural tools in the community. The community use of the psychedelic plants in the intervention to the sprit word explains the pharmacological effects of the drugs to the users in the therapeutic agent's bases. The drugs developed in the psychedelics are LSD, MDMA, psilocybin, and ayahuasca are thus considered in their effect in increasing the brain processes leading to increased creativity and productivity. In this effect, consideration of the effects of the concinnated drugs on the Takwasi natives in the rain forest in the religious ceremony and their hallucination effects are demonstrated by the people involved in the experience. The effect of the experiences to involved individuals in the addiction field is considered, and cases of hallucination in the supernatural things they saw and exorcism use by the Catholics.

            The current research on LSD, MDMA, psilocybin, and ayahuasca, and the claims on their effects to increased productivity through a survey of the psychedelics users on their performance compared with non-users. The user’s experiences from their cognition concerning their creativity and the involvement in the movement of the stages of creative generation and their evaluation determine their effects. The effects of the drugs and how they affect perception moods and the cognition of an individual stimulate the creativity concerning the psychoanalytic theory on cognition. The effects in the individual as a consideration on the side effects reduce the effects of the drugs to the users despite the increased creativity and minds processes. In the perception case, the determination on the psychedelic’s ability to enhance and amplify the perception of the meaning of the concepts in place. Despite the effects of the drugs, the key aspect in their use as a guideline to protect the users from the misuse and the pharmacological uses in therapy for addicts, depressed and patient from post-traumatic experiences

Potential theoretical framework.

 Using the unifying theories in the study of psychedelic drugs' effects helps analyze the results psychologically through the theories. The theories help define how the psychedelics causes the effects they have on the mood’s reception and the self in response to an individual's cognition. The effects of the self's cognition on the mind perception are defined through the psychoanalytic theory where the aspect of development and access of the unconscious mind in the cognition and the stimulation of the mind buy the psychedelics. The consideration of the filtration theory as an aspect that tries to explain the effects of the psychedelics in the brain filtration effects, thus allowing the effects of the drugs. The use of the unifying theories gives an oversite of the drugs to increase creativity and productivity.

The description of the current theories is based on neuroscience to understand the psychedelics drug effect. The theories include entropic brain theory where it proposes that the determinant in the brain's conscious state is the system informational character. This tries to explain cognitive neuroscience in response to psychedelic drugs' effects, thus affecting the conscious mind state and its effects on the neuromotor. Integrated information theory provides the mathematical of the quality and quantity of the drugs' effects to the mind of the user concentrating on the conscious experience. The data from neural imaging and psychedelic drugs are thus represented in the conceptualize framework, thus providing a better understanding n the effects of the drugs on the conscious mind; thus, creativity and productivity increase. Predictive processing is essential too in determining the brain codes in effects to the use of the drugs. The theories provide a framework for studying the effects of psychedelics in the brain's creativity, neuroimaging, and mathematical presentation of the effects.

Bibliography

DUPUIS, David. "The socialization of hallucinations. Cultural priors, social interactions and contextual factors in the use of psychedelics." Transcultural Psychiatry (2020).

Nichols, David E. "Psychedelics." Pharmacological reviews 68, no. 2 (2016): 264-355.

Prochazkova, Luisa, Dominique P. Lippelt, Lorenza S. Colzato, Martin Kuchar, Zsuzsika Sjoerds, and Bernhard Hommel. "Exploring the effect of microdosing psychedelics on creativity in an open-label natural setting." Psychopharmacology 235, no. 12 (2018): 3401-3413.

[1] Nichols, David E. "Psychedelics." Pharmacological reviews 68, no. 2 (2016): 264-355.

[2] DUPUIS, David. "The socialization of hallucinations. Cultural priors, social interactions and contextual factors in the use of psychedelics." Transcultural Psychiatry (2020).

[3] Prochazkova, Luisa, Dominique P. Lippelt, Lorenza S. Colzato, Martin Kuchar, Zsuzsika Sjoerds, and Bernhard Hommel. "Exploring the effect of microdosing psychedelics on creativity in an open-label natural setting." Psychopharmacology 235, no. 12 (2018): 3401-3413.

Influences of People’s Psychology by Light in Architecture

Introduction

Light is the wavelength of electronic radiation that the human eye can detect. Whether artificial lighting or daylighting, it brought attention to colors, texture, and space form, and the real purpose of architecture is to achieve with the aids of light (Petrescu, & Calautit, 13.3). Vision contributes mainly to behavior or psychology, and lightening building makes human beings perceive architecture more (Kalat 23). A good building design takes into consideration light factors. Architecture psychology is mostly control by how the building looks in terms of brightness and colors, considering that it is crucial to understand how light in architecture influences people′s emotions.

1. Precedent studies

Schielke states that Louis Khan uses the light as a source often hidden behind louvers or secondary walls, thus concentrating attention on the light's effect and not on its origin. That’s what we are trying to figure out, how to use light to draw people’s attention and motivate them to move to the next space. Light drives the minds of people; however, only a few appreciate this sense. According to psychological facts, apart from the visual effects attributed to image, shape, perception, and contrast, light has biological and psychological effects, whose impacts are transferrable to the health and well-being of people living in these spaces (Tomassoni et al. 1216). The light in space's cognitive performance and the potential of light architectural designs need to ensure adequate brightness, hue, and saturation as the significant qualities of light related to color. Understanding issues revolving around environmental cognition can help determine the architectural design, evaluating building elements, paintings, textures, and spaces capable of drawing people’s attention.

 In this context, the success of this project is linked to the existing knowledge in lighting psychology. This explains why some living spaces might feel warm and inviting while others are too cold and sometimes oppressive. For this reason, the design takes into consideration the places where the lighting should be placed in the room, making a good impression of the living space. The concern is due to light's potentials to provoke or invoke emotions; therefore, there is a need to position light strategically to avoid negative emotions (Chao et al. 175). Additionally, brightness, which is known to impact space perception, needs to be considered. Other aspects stated earlier, such as hue or color in light saturation, affects moods.

2. Relation to Site and Program

Our location is East 38th-42nd Street in New York City. We selected this location because it is adjacent to the United Nations and is surrounded by tall buildings, restricting the amount of light we will use while constructing the building. It is also convenient in terms of travel since it is surrounded by FDR Drive, bus stations, the Queens Midtown Tunnel, and adjacent to Grand Central Terminal and the East 34th Street Ferry Terminal. It would be easy for people to get here. And it was right next to the bridge, so people on the other side of the river could see the rally.

The lights will classify all of the rooms, which will be our theme: light design spaces. As a result, we conducted a sun analysis for our blog. We observed the sunshine on June 21st and December 21st and noticed two moments that helped us construct the house. The shadow of three tall buildings is perpendicular to our position on June 21st at 6:00 pm, dividing the location into five parts, and sunlight passes through to the site on December 21st at 2:00 pm, dividing the area into three-part (Mansfield 85).

The UN Events in NYC Gallery, meeting center, Meditation room, Auditorium (an internal gathering space for protests), Public Plaza (an outdoor gathering space for demonstrations), cafe, office, and parking are all available class. It divided the main program gallery into five sections focused on the UN's five roles: maintaining peace international and stability, human rights protection, humanitarian delivering relief, sustainable development promotion, and international law upholding.

3. Design Methodology

The interior light will be manipulated in order to research how light can affect an individual's emotions. Interior manipulations there will be subjected to three designs that are light therapy, blue light, and control light with each condition of lightening, using Profile of Mood State-Short Form (POMS-SF) for emotional state assessment. There are five subscales in POMS-SF: Tension, Anger, Confusion, Vigor, Depression-Dejection, and Figure. The mood will be found by summing subscales score and deducting the vigor score. The POMS-SF will be accompanied by a questionnaire for individuals who have undertaken the scale tests, which will widen the score of understanding the psychological effects of light in architecture. In this case, direct sunlight will not be used. Instead, the ceiling will be removed and replaced by material that will manipulate the stage, giving different light colors.

When the rays of light illuminate the middle of the stage in the morning hours around 8:00 am, all locations will be illuminated by the afternoon. Making most people focus on the scene, which is when a different ceiling can be used to change the color of light that is being enlightened on the stage. Around 2:00 pm, bouncing light is soft and sufficient, direct sunlight is on the gallery, guiding people to move forward. Which will have the same illumination till around 5:00 pm. light can be analyzed as guiding individuals to move away from sunlight or focus where light rays are appearing. 

4. Methodology Precedent Research

We learn to manipulate interior lighting to observe individuals' emotions and responses due to change in architecture. Architectural change should start with the lighting, but why lighting? This goes without debate as to most of the information we receive in the world that surrounds us through the eyes. The possibility to receive this information is precedent by light as the only medium that our eyes can see. However, its concentration, which is referred to as intensity, distribution, and other properties of light, is the reason behind the perception (Tomassoni et al., 1216). In the planning of the visual environment, priority should be given to the lighting design. An efficient lighting design should therefore create a perceptual condition that allows every individual to work effectively and maintain a safe orientation. These two conditions promote a feeling of well-being in the living space.

We what to learn how to determine the extent to which different light colors in architecture buildings can invoke individual emotions. Maybe we could create a feeling of revere when people see what the UN has done in New York. The design in this project had a primary focus to create a positive social space. In this effort, the project had to integrate specific criteria before the planning process. This criterion should focus on self-esteem, normality, autonomy control, and motivation, which creates new forms of buildings, with new urban structures enriched with new functions and still well lit. The effort to achieve new designs should be accompanied by change, where people drop the old concepts and employ creativity to create spaces that promote residents' well-being.

5. Theory, history, literature, and/or other cultural material

The existence or lack of natural illumination affects behavior patterns by evoking such feelings, which might or might not benefit the task planned for a particular building/architecture (Georgoulis et al., 1935). As a result, architects must interpret performance in terms of the goals for which the building is designed and how natural light will help them accomplish those goals. It's worth remembering that light's psychological effects are dependent on the experiences of the viewers, so it's crucial to think about how people perceive different forms of light when designing architecture. Furthermore, there are significant variations between how natural light is used in formal and informal areas because public spaces represent a larger population. In contrast, private rooms serve a smaller community. While natural daylight sculpts environments, it must conform to the needs of a large number of people in designated areas. Private spaces, which rely more on the Implications for Human Psychology People's reference points are dictated by how they interpret different characteristics in any contextual framework, almost as much as what they see or perceive.

People travel from one location to another, searching for convenience, which would be a significant factor in how interiors are built (Coburn et al., 220). In this situation, comfort refers to illumination and how it contributes to or detracts from space's comfort. For example, certain spatial elements can evoke more visual perception, resulting in a more extended preferred mode. Light can use these variables to describe why people can travel differently in formal and informal areas. People's public places' activities are more exploratory than in private settings like houses, which encourage habitual gestures. As a result, people's actions are influenced by their experience with a structure or, more accurately, space. When researching these traits, bear in mind that people appear to gravitate toward the light and away from darkness. As a result, the dynamic range between the two spaces determines how much focus is required in that place. Since people gravitate toward lighter objects, if the ratio is high, then push into that room would increase.

The light will change when pedestrians walk down the hallway, switching from a private to a public space. Have this feature, and it is necessary to shape the corridor and change the natural light (Garcia et al., 345). As a result, adjustments should be made focusing on an interpretation of the transformation zone associated with human vision adaptation as it moves from light to darkness and vice versa. Individual visions' adjustment influences persons' mobility from one location to the next, commuting through spaces with considerable brightness contrast. Since public buildings are usually lighter than private rooms, it stands to reason that travel between such two environments will have a comparable effect on human perception development. It is essential to note an architectural design such as the Auditorium in a workplace to protect this area and align everything with natural daylight. Despite its high cost, the atrium is a significant leveler and a cost-effective means of supplying natural light and connecting rooms. Thus, people's movement is influenced by their vision adaptation, much as their vision is influenced by their changes from public to private spaces.

Natural illumination influences feelings of comfort and pleasure, but these feelings are given more weight in private spaces such as residences than in public areas such as cities. People would choose illumination that is more realistic and calming as a group, so natural light is preferred to artificial light (Heydarian et al., 1122). Dawn is a gestalt instrument that assists in gestalt restoration by assisting in mental regeneration, conceptual decoding, cognitive decryption, and semantic commodification, among other processes. As a result of its color rendering power and variability, natural light has essential mental and emotional benefits.

Work Cited

Chao, Wei-Cheng, et al. "Effect of correlated colour temperature and illuminance levels on user’s visual perception under LED lighting in Taiwan." Ergonomics 63.2 (2020): 175-190.

Coburn, Alexander, et al. "Psychological and neural responses to architectural interiors." Cortex 126 (2020): 217-241.

Garcia, Roberto Barraza, et al. "LED street lighting as a strategy for climate change mitigation at local government level." IEEE Global Humanitarian Technology Conference (GHTC 2014). IEEE, 2014.

Georgoulis, Stamatios, et al. "Reflectance and natural illumination from single-material specular objects using deep learning." IEEE transactions on pattern analysis and machine intelligence 40.8 (2017): 1932-1947.

Heydarian, Arsalan, et al. "Defining lighting settings to accommodate end-user preferences while reducing energy consumption in buildings." Construction Research Congress 2016. 2016.

Kalat, James W. Introduction to psychology. Cengage Learning, 2021.

Mansfield, K. P. "Architectural lighting design: A research review over 50 years." Lighting Research & Technology 50.1 (2018): 80-97.

Petrescu, Florian Ion, and John Kaiser Calautit. "About the light dimensions." American Journal of Applied Sciences 13.3 (2016).

Rasoulpour, Hazhir, and Farzin Charehjoo. "The Effect of the Built Environment on the Human Psyche Promote Relaxation." Architecture Research 7.1 (2017): 16-23.

Schielke, Thomas. "Light Matters: Louis Kahn and the Power of Shadow." Arch Daily 23 (2013).

Tomassoni, Rosella, Giuseppe Galetta, and Eugenia Treglia. "Psychology of light: How light influences the health and psyche." Psychology 6.10 (2015): 1216.

Abnormal Psychology Diagnosis and Treatment

Introduction

The United States is a free will state, which is characterized by a wide variety of behaviors and personalities. There is a large number of people, whom we know others we do not know, who portray abnormal behavior. The latter behavior is characterized by patterns of thoughts, emotions, and sometimes actions, which are considered to be caused by a physical or mental disease. Some of the common forms of disorders that have been diagnosed by a majority of individuals include anxiety and personality disorders. These two forms of disorders are commonly described to alter a person’s personality, and mostly result from life experiences. Precisely, anxiety disorder is a form of abnormal behavior, whose characteristics are irrational and unrealistic fear, diagnosed in both men and women, varying in severity, but easily treatable. However, before treatment, it is important to carry out a robust diagnosis to ensure that the best medication is administered (Bandelow, Michaelis & Wedekind, 2017).

Case History and Description

In the United States, many cases have been reported of individuals with various forms of disorders. The latter disorders are prevalent across people of all ages, either male or female, who portray symptoms of abnormal behaviors. This context is witnessed by John, a 45 years old Caucasian man, married, with three sons and a high school principal, who have been moved to a new school in New York. Even though he is educated he experiences paralyzing fear attacks, which led him to seek treatment for anxiety disorders. John confirms, with his therapist he has been experiencing 2 to 5 paralyzing fear every month. One of the recent cases having happened a week ago, while he was driving his family to a computer store.

On the journey to the computer store, she had not been aware of the feeling of a possible anxiety attack. Immediately after telling the kids to stop making noise, she started feeling dizzy. This experience was followed by a surge of other sensations, which were sweating, hot flushes, accelerated heart rate, trembling, and a feeling of detachment from the body. He feared crashing the car and thus requested his wife to drive for the rest of the journey. Additionally, he feared future incidences of anxiety and changed his lifestyle as well as a variety of situations such as flying, riding in elevators, driving, especially over long distances, taking long walks alone, going to movie theaters, being in wide-open spaces, and out of town. Despite some of these symptoms that fully convinced him of having heart disease, the majority of the doctors failed to identify the problem claiming that he was okay.

Additionally, there is a historical perspective of this disorder. John claims that his first experience had been felt fifteen years ago, which was after a heavy intake of alcohol with friends. After sleeping for some time and waking up, he felt some dizziness, accompanied by stomach pains and pulsating sensation back of his neck. The attack and sensation lasted for about five to seven minutes and left him, which was followed by overwhelming fear the following morning. During this time, also John confesses that he had been taking a case of beer every day, becoming alcohol dependent for seven years. The alcohol history was traced to his older brother who abused alcohol. Besides, he was born of a mother who was highly anxious, suffering from agoraphobia (Shin et al., 2020). Extending to the family lineage on the maternal side the grandfather, grandmother, and another aunt suffered from severe panic disorder. Seeking medical attention is highly advisable as the therapists would be in a position to assess the type of disorder and thus offer the right mediation on this disorder which seems easily treatable.

Diagnosis

Before embarking on real treatment and medication prescription, it is essential to carry out a detailed diagnosis. The purpose of diagnosis is to improve the effectiveness of treatments that help in eliminating the effects of long-term complications for the infected person. Additionally, it is through diagnosis that a problem, especially disorders that it is possible to eliminate the adverse effects that are associated with chronic stages of complications. In this context, John seeks a therapist over the past incidences of attacks and fear, to seek diagnosis and treatment for the same disorder. Possibly, John is suffering from panic disorder, which is classified as an anxiety disorder in DSM-5. The latter DSM-5 is a Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorder, put across by the American Psychiatric Association (APA), whose main role is to diagnose mental health disorders, in the US (Asmundson, Taylor & AJ Smits, 2014).

There is a strategic criterion highlighted in the DSM-5 that can be used in the diagnosis of this disorder. This criterion is based on the symptoms portrayed by the patients, which are supposed to be unexpected and recurrent attacks. For a patient to be successfully diagnosed with this disorder must meet the stated criteria. From the definition, a panic attack is known to be an abrupt surge characterized by intense discomfort and fear, which is known to reach a maximum after a few minutes. According to the criteria, an individual has to portray at least four of the following characteristics; sweating, trembling, a sensation of short breath, nausea, accelerated heart rate, dizziness, heat sensation, depersonalization, fear of losing control, and fear of dying. These are a majority of the symptoms that John portrays, suggestively that he might be suffering from this disorder. Additionally, the criteria demand that the patients should at least have experienced an attack which is followed in a month, with a persistent concern or worry about additional panic and attacks (Asmundson, Taylor & AJ Smits, 2014). More so, portray a change in behavior related to the attacks, which makes the patient avoid unfamiliar situations and places. However, it is important to note that the disorder is not attributed to the effects of substance use or even explained by other mental disorders. In the same way, the disorder continues to attack John, even after ceasing to use alcohol. We can, therefore, conclude that John is suffering from panic disorder and thus we can proceed to prescribe medication for the treatment of this disorder.

Treatment Plan

Various treatment strategies can be used to effectively treat panic disorder. These methods of treatment are determined by the severity of the disorder. Here are some of the treatment strategies that can be used in addressing John’s case. The first treatment plan is cognitive behavioral therapy, which focuses on determining the behavior patterns responsible for causing the panic attacks (Caldirola & Perna, 2019). This applies to John as it will help the therapist and himself look at his fears realistically and seek possible ways of eliminating the problem. The second treatment method is exposure therapy, which involves individuals getting exposed to physical sensations that come with their panic attacks. For instance, John's sensation comes with itching at the back of the neck and head, which forces him to scratch and pace, to reduce the sensation. This therapy is essential as it would help him learn better techniques that can help him cope with the sensation. This will result in eliminate the fears and gain control. Most commonly, medication has been used to control the symptoms related to panic disorder. However, the effectiveness of the medicine is only temporal, therefore for effectiveness on the entire process, a combination of the medicine with other therapies is a sure way of addressing this disorder (Dobrovolsky et al., 2017). Generally, if disorders are treated in the right way individuals get back to their normal lives.

References

Asmundson, G. J., Taylor, S., & AJ Smits, J. (2014). Panic disorder and agoraphobia: An overview and commentary on DSM‐5 changes. Depression and Anxiety, 31(6), 480-486.

Bandelow, B., Michaelis, S., & Wedekind, D. (2017). Treatment of anxiety disorders. Dialogues in clinical neuroscience, 19(2), 93.

Caldirola, D., & Perna, G. (2019). Toward a personalized therapy for panic disorder: preliminary considerations from a work in progress. Neuropsychiatric disease and treatment, 15, 1957.

Dobrovolsky, A., Ichim, T. E., Ma, D., Kesari, S., & Bogin, V. (2017). Xenon in the treatment of panic disorder: an open label study. Journal of translational medicine, 15(1), 1-10.

Shin, J., Park, D. H., Ryu, S. H., Ha, J. H., Kim, S. M., & Jeon, H. J. (2020). Clinical implications of agoraphobia in patients with panic disorder. Medicine, 99(30).

Meeting the 3 Psychological Needs of Self-Determination and Motivation Interviewing

In an attempt at motivating others, three basic psychological requirements influence people's mannerisms- autonomy, capability, and relatedness. The three aspects are pivotal extents of self-determination. In this particular context, Dr. Peter Shelby greets his client and in the process forms a trust bond with the client. This gives the client the chance and opportunity to open up to Dr. Peter Shelby. The patient is motivated to speak her mind due to the openness and conducive environment Dr. Peter Shelby creates for her. He listens and responds without judging the client hence giving the client a go-head to explain her challenges with smoking vividly without fear of embarrassing herself (Wehmeyer, & Shogren, 2016). The client is already assured of autonomy and Dr. Peter presents himself as competent and effective in handling the entire situation. Dr. Peter comprehends that humans are curious creates and uses this fact to motivate his client to speak up her mind to regain her health from smoking habits. In terms of competence, the patient had to prove that she has control over her emotions and actions (Markland et al.2005). For instance, the client admits that she is addicted to smoking cigarettes and acknowledges the negative impact the behavior has on her friends, family, and even workmates. Dr. Peter prompts his patient to divulge the negative effects of smoking which in turn forces her to talk about measures he had taken to reduce the vice. Apart from autonomy and competence, relatedness is seen in Peter’s tone. He is relaxed and welcoming to the patient. At no point does he judge or cut short his patient. The patient feels more loved and opens up about her situation.

2  

  The aspects of motivational interviewing are expressed through the essence of motivation is to easily perform tasks without the need of consuming motivator factors such as payment or any other reward systems (Markland, Ryan, Tobin, & Rollnick, 2005). There are numerous intrinsic motivation aspects with fluctuating terms of autonomy, competency, and relatedness. In the video, Dr. Peter Shelby makes use of relatedness to make the client feel comfortable. Also, effectively communicating with his patient was able to eradicate differences that might have existed between the client and Dr. Peter Shelby. For instance, Dr. Peter Shelby aligns the conversation with the client so that he could have a better understanding of the underlying issues the client was facing.

 The autonomy aspect of self-determination stems from the ideology that people try as much as possible to manage the result of an ordeal and this capability to control gives them a chance to master themselves and their own experiences (Méndez et al., 2017). For example, Dr. Peter allows his client to talk about her struggle with cigarette addiction and she explains her emotions and how much she was scared (Teach Project, 2010). The client gives herself 6 months hence proving competence levels of self-determination. Thus, the interview proves that humans try to control the result of any incident in their lives.

3

In terms of relatedness, humans are social beings who seek validation and even concern about other people. The social nature of most human beings forces them to socialize with other people. These can explain the reason other people seek the assistance of other human beings (Friederichs et al., 2016). The ability to relate with one another through socialization manifests the human aspect of caring for other people.  

 The self-determination concept states that relatedness is vital for people and is normally associated with intrinsic motivation. In the video, the client admits that her addiction is enabled through social circles in which she engages. Also, it is vital to note that the client is given enough time to speak of her ordeal ad experiences with smoking. In terms of autonomy, Dr. Peter asks the questions and the client is obliged to respond to them in a manner that fits the conversation. This builds up the conversation and gives the client the confidence needed to express herself in simpler terms and language. In short, motivating interviewing enables counseling and the expression of ambivalent emotions and insecurities with the aim of internal motivation.

References

Friederichs, S. A., Oenema, A., Bolman, C., & Lechner, L. (2016). Motivational interviewing and self-determination theory in a web-based computer-tailored physical activity intervention: A randomized controlled trial. Psychology & Health, 31(8), 907-930.

Markland, D., Ryan, R. M., Tobin, V. J., & Rollnick, S. (2005). Motivational interviewing and self–determination theory. Journal of social and clinical psychology, 24(6), 811-831.

Méndez López, M. G., & Bautista Tun, M. (2017). Motivating and demotivating factors for students with low emotional intelligence to participate in speaking activities. Profile Issues in TeachersProfessional Development, 19(2), 151-163.

 Teach Project (2010). Dr. Peter Selby - MI Skills - Tobacco Cessation - Ambivalent Client www.teachproject.ca. Retrieved 2 February 2021, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MixAphYLZy0.

Wehmeyer, M. L., & Shogren, K. A. (2016). Self-determination and choice. Handbook of evidence-based practices in intellectual and developmental disabilities, 561-584.

Qualitative Research:

What Are The Psychological Effects Of Prison On Ex-Felons And Their Families?

Introduction

This essay on the use of qualitative approaches in expounding a study topic on the psychological effects of prison on ex-felons and their families. The purpose of this research is to examine the possibility of the convicted criminal engaging in the same criminals. More so, to determine the divorce rates for these e-felons and the frequency of seeking counseling or therapy after being released from the prison. In this paper, we will primarily reflect on Willis (2007), chapters on reflection questions. It is from this reflection we will be capable to identify and discuss the appropriateness of interpretivism or postpositivism frameworks, based on the issues highlighted in the Willis resources (Willis, 2007). In this essay we will also present a qualitative, outlining the advantages of each, highlighting the most challenging and the most specific based on the research questions listed. Additionally, the essay also discusses the validity and conclusions, discussing their relevance based on the research topic.

In order to answer the research questions listed in the paper, we consider the use of an interpretive view of reality, which highlights the purpose of the research. This approach or paradigm believes that understanding the context is one of the most critical things that need to be done in any research. It is from this approach that the researchers get to understand the meaning of the collected data. Also, the postpositivists approach is equally essential as it enables the researchers to use the data from the study to make generalizations (Willis, 2007). In this context, we would like to apply these criteria to evaluate the research questions listed concerning the study topic. The research question presented is “What are the psychological effects of prison on ex-felons and their families?”

The above-stated research question fits in the five frameworks presented by Willis (2007). In this context, the topic of discussion aligns with the nature of reality, which accepts the existence of an external, physical comfort or the socially constructed. According to the interpretivists assertions qualitative researches are influenced and shaped by pre-existing theories and other globally accepted views. Additionally, terms, data, and procedures used in the research have a meaning as they are agreed upon by a group of scholars, making it a socially constructed activity, the reality gaining more acceptance (Willis, Jost, & Nilakanta, 2007). Moreover, the view of reality involves the view on reality based on the purpose of the research, the research purpose is in line with the research question, and in this question, our purpose would be to examine the psychological effects of prison on e-felons and their families.

For qualitative research, it is also essential to consider the methods used in data collection. This ensures that the procedures used are the acceptable and thus advanced quality of data. In this nature of research putting into consideration postpositivists, there is a belief that there is zero progress if the research does not follow up some set standards. Alternatively, the interpretivists believe that standards are not accepted universally, but they apply to a particular group or culture, in the same way, the question under discussion fits in the interpretivism as it only applies to a group of individuals who have been incarcerated, and now released (Kroeze, 2012). Furthermore, in establishing the meaning of data, interpretivist will simply present the understanding of the situation as stated earlier, while the postpositivism and critical theory presents the meaning of the research data. Lastly and the most essential issue is examining the relationship between the research and real-life experience. Both the interpretive and postpositivist focus professional practice, this is how the study discussion can be applied by practitioners in real-life situations. Our discussion topic is based on a real-life experience, how people interact with their families after spending some period in the prisons after committing crimes and how they feel when released.

In qualitative research, some frameworks are employed to lay foundations for interpretive and critical approaches. A common practice where these frameworks are applicable is choosing among many the one that would help answer the research questions comfortably. For this essay the research questions are: “1. how likely is recidivism for inmates that do not come home to families, 2. what is the divorce rate of ex-felons? And 3. How often do ex-felons seek therapy or counseling after being released from prison?” some of the frameworks that are used include the postpositivist approach, which seeks to find ideas being researched, develop a testable hypothesis, design a scientific study to gather quantitative data, and then analyze the data given. This method gives comprehensive data in numbers, but it is not suitable for qualitative research that does not use numbers. The second framework comprises moments for qualitative research, which involves traditional methods, modernist phases, blurred genres, the crisis of representation, which include the methods used by social scientists in the collection of data (Kroeze, 2012). These methods have been abandoned as they are outdated and they are applicable in the universe has decreased.

Additionally, the use of general frameworks for qualitative research, which includes a collection of concepts that guide research. These frameworks are based on interpretive perspectives and critical theories, whose basis points to analytical realism, seeking to make them compatible with both paradigms. Although this method addresses both approaches, it makes text contradictions and thus portraying different ideologies other than expected. Another framework that existed in the history of psychologists following their rejection of positivist and postpositivist approaches, is the phenomenological psychological model, and structuralism was put in practice. These frameworks are based on the assumption that psychological researches are carried the same way as those belonging to other disciplines of natural sciences (Willis, 2007). This method has been used in the last few decades and proves a success in providing descriptions of experiences in daily lives. Out of the listed methods, this method seems the best among the listed methods. The reason why this method is much suitable is that the research questions are based on individual experience after prison life. Lastly, the symbolic interactionism framework, which has been on the high rise in the 20^th century, where sociologists use symbols to show a shared frame of meaning. This method is limited since it focuses on questions and research purposes not worth asking.

            Validation and generalizations make the summary or conclusions of the qualitative research papers. The former aspects are determined by the methods to use in the entire research process. The latter includes all procedures and tools used in data collection and analysis, elimination of biases, selection of natural research contexts, and inclusion of induction and deduction methods. Moreover, the validity can either be internal if without it the research cannot be interpreted and external if it asks questions based on generalizability. Essays present the validity and generalization as the final section, consisting of law-like statements under another name (Willis, 2007). In postpositivism, research conclusions are generalizations that can be used by others. For interpretive research, the conclusions are assumed to be human or group behavior characterized by laws that can apply across many individuals. Thus conclusions under all circumstances should be contextual details, which form part of the background, which can be used by professionals to make decisions.

References

Kroeze, J. H. (2012). Interpretivism in IS–a postmodernist (or postpositivist?) knowledge theory.

Willis, J. (2007). History and foundations of interpretivist research. Foundations of qualitative research: Interpretive and critical approaches, 95-146.

Willis, J. W. (2007). General guidelines for qualitative research. Foundations of qualitative research: Interpretive and critical approaches, 185-227.

Willis, J. W., Jost, M., & Nilakanta, R. (2007). Foundations of qualitative research: Interpretive and critical approaches. Sage.

Dreams

Introduction

 Since time immemorial, dreams have always captivated the human imagination. Humans have attempted to not only interpret dreams but to find a deeper meaning to their dreams. Commonly, dreams refer to a series of imageries, thoughts, sensations, and perceptions that normally occur compulsorily within the mind especially during various sleep phases. Even though humans dream most of the time in their sleep, most of the dreams are forgotten. Ancient philosophers claimed that dreams have restorative functionalities, for instance, the brain is biochemically restored every time one dream. The functions of dreams are not yet academically defined, but most people think that dreams enable the creative tendencies of an individual. Thus, the need to study the conscious and unconscious state of dreams, symbolisms tied to dreams, myths, and interpretation of dreams is necessary.

Conscious and Unconscious State of Dreams

 In a conscious dream, a person is aware of the dream. The senses of the dreamer can recognize that he is dreaming. Also referred to as a lucid dream. Conscious dreams occur during swift eye motion or better yet known as the sleep dream phase. Most dreams are conscious (Freud, & Crick, 2001). On the other hand, while in the unconscious state people tend to dream. Dreams are an alternative path to the unconscious mind. Details from the unconscious part of the brain often appear in dreams. Hence, also, dreams are a form of fulfilling fantasies. Therefore the unconscious mind is forced to express itself through dreams. Some studies show that coma patients experience dreams while in an unconscious state. Even though these coma patients are unresponsive to touch, and their brains do not exhibit any signs of dream activity, still, these patients can dream. More so, unconscious communication takes place between the brains and emotions of these coma patients.

Symbolism

 About dreams, symbolism refers to imageries and symbols people generate in their dreams. Also, symbolisms assists carry the message of the dream beyond the scope of the dreamer. Symbolisms assist people to explain their dreaming experiences to other people who might not have experienced the same impact of the dream. The ability to decipher metaphors and another complex things in dreams is often tasking and needs careful observation and familiarity. Most people might find themselves able to interpret and paint a vivid picture of other people's dreams (Turnbull, & Solms, 2007). Generally, in dreams sky is a symbol of ideas and concepts that one holds dear to him or her.  One of the most simple and straightforward methods of explaining dreams is by gaining comprehension of the symbols. Therefore, most people have come up with universal ways of recognizing the meaning of symbols.

 Most experts claim that dreams do not have universal symbolism. Thus, the interpretation of one dream cannot be similar to another dream. Symbolism varies thus creating more than one way of interpreting dreams. For example, if two people saw dogs, the interpretation might vary from one person to another. It is important to note that dream symbols only have meaning if one writes a journal and keeps all the details. Writing helps the dreamer capture more information which in turn helps in the interpretation of the dreams. Additionally isolating vital symbols in one’s dream helps in reliving the dream and retelling it in a more accurate manner that would enable people to interpret the meaning of each symbol that was present in the dream. Therefore, one of the best ways to find the meaning of symbols is by identifying common symbols and then try to connect the symbols to interest one has in actual life. In the end, the meaning will depend on one's personality and interests.

Dream Myths

Dreams myths are designed to give people identity and destiny. Most of the time, people believe that everything that a dreamer dreams of he will face in the future. Thus, whether one likes it or not, dreams turn into reality. Another common myth is that if one can remember all the details about his or her dream, then he or she slept peacefully. Some claim that dreams are ways through which the dead try to communicate with the living. Thus, once one begins sleeping, death communicates with them through dreams.

Interpretation of Dreams

 The interpretation of a dream implies looking for a deeper meaning of the dream. Some people believe that the interpretation of the dream relies entirely on its accuracy. Apart from relieving unconscious desires and wants, dreams may have more than one interpretation. Feud claim that the interpretation of a dream leads to unveiling issues hidden in the unconscious mind (Mazzoni, et al., 1999). Through the study of dream content, one can enlighten himself on the hidden meaning of the dream. Chances of coming up with one or more meanings are high due to the uncertainty connected to the interpretation of dreams.

 In summary, dreams can occur consciously or unconsciously. Conscious dreams occur when the eyes flicker at a high rate. On the other hand, unconscious dreams take place when a person is not aware that the dream is taking place. Dream content contains symbolism. The meaning of each symbolism differs from one person to another. Hence, one has to write down a dream so that identification of symbolism is made easier. Interpretation of dreams means looking for the hidden meaning of the dream.

References

Freud, S., & Crick, J. T. (2001). The Interpretation of Dreams: Book review.

Mazzoni, G. A., Lombardo, P., Malvagia, S., & Loftus, E. F. (1999). Dream interpretation and false beliefs. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 30(1), 45.

Turnbull, O. H., & Solms, M. (2007). Awareness, desire, and false beliefs: Freud in the light of modern neuropsychology. Cortex, 43(8), 1083-1090.

Psychosocial Instruments

Psychosocial Valuation Tool

 This instrument is normally used for diagnosing children with cancer and also the same can be applied to patients with cases of increased pressure ulcers in ICU. Caregivers or nurses have to measure more than one aspect of the condition before arriving at a final answer.  The aim of using a psychosocial assessment tool kit is to predict the rate ad spread of pressure among different populations within the ICU. Most of the responses are usually passed through experts who readily make more than one conclusion (Honan et al., 2019). For example, the assessment covers the most common groups that have been known to acquire increased pressure in the ICU. The assessment has to capture characteristics that prove that one might be vulnerable to increased pressure during his stay in ICU (Alosaimi et al., 2019). While screening patients for wanted aspects, most of the time, psychometric properties are taken to account. Hence, the medics can come up with ways of preventing the disease from recurring.

Physiological Measurement Instrument

 More than one physiological measurement tool is used in the measurement of pressure ulcers. One of the instruments is a stethoscope which is used to measure the heart rate and diagnose the impact of increased pressure ulcers (Al-Ali et al., 2016). Also, a thermometer can be used to check the temperature of the patient and note the cortisol levels. The indirect and direct mechanisms used to make use of more the one aspect of tracking physiological measurements. The only disadvantage of physiological measurement is that it only captures the physical components of the situation hence preventing one from coming to terms with underlying issues that might be as well as affecting the patient.

References

Al-Ali, A., Kiani, M. J. E., & Weber, W. M. (2016). U.S. Patent No. 9,241,662. Washington, DC: U.S. Patent and Trademark Office.

Alosaimi, F. D., Labani, R., Almasoud, N., Alhelali, N., Althawadi, L., & AlJahani, D. M. (2019). Associations of foot ulceration with quality of life and psychosocial determinants among patients with diabetes; a case-control study. Journal of Foot and Ankle Research, 12(1), 57.

Honan, C. A., McDonald, S., Tate, R., Ownsworth, T., Togher, L., Fleming, J., ... & Ponsford, J. (2019). Outcome instruments in moderate-to-severe adult traumatic brain injury: recommendations for use in psychosocial research. Neuropsychological rehabilitation, 29(6), 896-916.

History and Systems of Psychology

Introduction

Psychology’s current variety, both as a vibrant study field and in its numerous solicitations, compels the public to inquire on how it came into existence. In the current marketplace, careers and concepts illustrate the impact psychology had in multiple intellectual arenas. The past, progressions and organizations of psychology including the different opinions has permanent and social interactions aspects on scientific investigations and technical progressions (Wango, 2017). Psychology forms part of logical, historical, medical, legislative, philosophy and financial development of the society. In addition, the onset and progression of psychology has marked the advancement which integrated with other disciplines such as counselling and psychotherapy.

Background of Psychology and Major Contributions of Psychology

 All traditions and communities throughout history gambled about the world’s nature. This included the human thoughts, body, heart and soul. Traditional communities tried to interpret the world via customary and religious perspectives. This was inclusive of standardized customs and mannerisms conducts. For instance, Socrates shaped the cultural ad intellectual development of the entire human society (Del et al., 2016). On the other hand, Hippocrates cited the brain as the origin of mental illness and personality issues. Ancient communities tried to comprehend the world. Some of the subject matter they tried to understand is the issue of life and death, heavenly bodies and seasons. The attempt to understand psychological led to the development of myths, legends, oral narratives, balls, sayings, and art. Communities created religion and other societal aspects such as matrimony and clan. In almost every customary communities, and social life, all the aspects of the community seems related to each other. Society also imparted values based on the philosophies guiding the community. These includes mannerism, actions and regulations of the community. Sooner than later, the members of the community noticed that some people deviated from the societal norms. Thus, the community appointed some leaders who would deal with deviant behavior. Handling anomaly or mental illness in the ancient communities was chiefly through exorcism.  Traditional healer or doctor carried out the exorcism (Del et al., 2016). The concept was to remove evil spirit. In the current societies, there is strong correlation and inclination to the ancient norms. For instance mentally ill patients are taken for counselling. In short cultural psychology and modern day counselling helps in understanding vital information on personal identity and other communities.

Development of Logical, Philosophy and Psychology

 In ancient cultures, philosophers and specialists such as Hippocrates and Descartes trailed information while investigating mechanisms which caused the generation of logical, ideological and psychological. Hippocrates acknowledged mental disorder as an infection and sought to rectify the causal physical pathological causes. Expressive challenges were later recognized among other primary medical issues (Dalton et al., 2013). Advanced researches led to the learning of human brain, feelings, individuality and evaluation trials. Based on verified expert research, in the ancient civilizations, healers, philosophers and medicine healers helped explained or form some of the psychological concepts seen in the current world today. During the middle age, human experienced expansion in the field of philosophy. Furthermore, philosophical concepts influenced and changed the world. Later on, philosophical knowledge became high specialized hence facilitating its application in other disciplines. Thus, this led to the sporadic expansion of psychological concepts such as psychiatry. More so, advancing investigations enlightened people on the need and role of psychology in the everyday of the people. In the past, mental illness was negatively perceived and annihilated from the rest of the community. Initially, mentally ill individuals were restricted in beds and even whipped. However, During the 1800s, the medication of mental illness patients changed drastically, as psychologists came up with better ideas which were then incorporated in the society. Subsequently, psychoanalysis methods such as behaviorism, humanistic mechanisms and mental mannerisms confirmed that mental disorders could be treated in human ways. Hence, psychological ideals exposed people to the normal situations under which the human mind could be subjected to without any restrictions.

Events Which Influenced Psychology

 Ancient manuscripts on psychological subject matters go back to 1550 BCE. This was when ancient Egyptian civilizations recorded numerous psychological situations such as depression and anxiety among others. During this periods, the Egyptians thought that psychological disorders had an underlying supernatural cause. Hence, these ancient manuscripts did not have a scientific underlying to the cause (King et al., 2009). Nevertheless, the fact of the matter is that ancient Egyptians understood the existence of mental illness and took it seriously. As a result, the ancient Egyptians set the groundwork for the development and progression of psychological issues in the future centuries. Taking into consideration the ancient norms and psychological issues, one may date them back to 3500 years ago the key operations under which psychology operates were said to have been discovered during this period. In the end, one can easily choose one topic on psychology and trace its roots back to its origin the ancient historical books. More so, one can take a scientific concept and trace it back into the origins of psychological concepts. In the end, the evolution of the tenets of psychology tend to relied on the application all around the world. Most of the time, the chance to capture all of the concepts at a go is a challenging affair hence forcing experts to converts the information into relevant actionable information. In other words, the tenets of psychological systems are held together by the conceptualization and organization of fundamental mechanisms. Hence with time psychological concepts have been used to control and make policies and scientific discoveries. This is similar to a paradigm due to the umbrella body of psychology which constitutes psychological concepts in the world.

The Role Francis Galton Played In the Advancement of Psychological Concepts

            Galton is an example of the strides psychological field has made over the years. Borne in 1911, Galton made extensive influences on psychology concepts. Specifically, Galton embraced various visualizations and was the first experts to identify and investigate ‘synaethesia’. He also came with the word-association evaluation to study the role of subconscious mind. Therefore, Galton initiated practical aspects of psychology hence leading to the unveiling of differential psychology (Grof, 2008). Differential psychology entails variances between individuals rather than the observation of mutual traits. In fact Galton began practically from nowhere and began formulating the tools needed to assess psychological conditions humans faced on a daily basis.   More so, the placement of the Galton’s ideological perspectives depends on the correlation and accumulation which in turn was developed in the ancient periods. Therefore, his concepts were later developed and used by other psychological experts. In summary, Galton impacted the psychological field.

Community and Psychology

            As stated earlier, the concepts of psychology have influenced the manner in which people perceive issues and their impact on the entire community. More so, two major issues in psychological issues is emotions and the interpretation of the underlying causes of the emotions. As a result humans were forced to explore psychodynamic psychology. Psychodynamic systems emphasizes unconscious or unseen motives which experts claim to be an impactful tool in the management of processes such as conscious motivation, perception, memories and mannerisms. A predominant issue in psychodynamic systems is one of Plato’s symbol of a human soul pulled by commanding stallions (Fuchs et al., 2007). This the development of other aspects of psychology were dependent on the people who initiated the entire process and how other people interpret or interacted  with  the nature on these sentiments. On the other hand, behavioral theory based its systems on seen actions or perceptions which one could openly identify and even rectify. The challenges of the study of different facets of psychology made experts embed their ideas in scientific concepts.

            In summary, psychology is an influential field which has impacted different zones of information. Grasping the how the human mind works helped humans discover science, seasons and form societies around these common psychological knowledge. Ancient societies learnt to connect the mind to actions and even disease. Psychological concepts expanded some of application of the field medicine and other sectors of the community. Psychology enabled people to know right from wrong and also defined the societal norms to be used on a daily basis. In terms of diagnosis experts such as Galton made psychology into a practical concepts that could be measured and observed based on various measurements. As humans developed, the mind and behavior influenced some of the norms people experienced in all aspects of life.

References

Dalton, J. H., Hill, J., Thomas, E., & Kloos, B. (2013). Community psychology. John Wiley & Sons Inc.

Del Giudice, M. A. R. C. O., Gangestad, S. W., & Kaplan, H. S. (2016). Life history theory and evolutionary psychology.

Fuchs, A. H., Evans, R. B., & Thomas, R. K. (2007). History of psychology: Recurring errors among recent history of psychology textbooks. The American journal of psychology, 477-495.

Grof, S. (2008). Brief history of transpersonal psychology. International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 27(1), 46-54.

King, D. B., Viney, W., & Woody, W. D. (2009). A history of psychology: Ideas and context.

Wango, G. (2017). History and Systems of Psychology: Timelines in the Development of Contemporary Psychology. Journal of Psychology, 5(2), 29-43.

Illegal and legal substance use issues regarding physical, social, and psychological effects

Abstract

Illegal and legal drug use is associated with social, physical, and psychological problems that contribute to a significant burden on an individual's life, children, society, and families. The purpose of this paper is to discuss the problems and emphasize the importance of creating and implementing effective prevention programs that involve the family, community, healthcare providers, and other stakeholders. The first part introduces the issue of drug use in adolescence stage and the increased risk of substance use. The second part is a literature review about what influence adolescents to drug use and the commonly used drugs and their effects. The third section is a discussion on what the literature reveals about drug use including the importance of focusing on the many risk factors that occur during adolescent years. The paper concludes that substance use is a major problem and solving the problem should go beyond the effects and consider the factors that increase risky behaviors. The paper recommends a multidisciplinary approach where all stakeholders should collaborate in coming up with effective treatment.

Introduction

Illegal and legal drug use is a health risk issue that people can change and lead a healthy life. Yet, the issue has become a lifestyle where at the age of 15, the habit of substance use develops. At adulthood, people abuse drugs not because they make a choice but it is because they started at an early age and hence they are unable to quit the habit. Despite the social, physical, and psychological costs, the prevalence rate is high among adolescents. Continued use of the drug is associated with physical effects which cause long term damage to memory and learning.  The research finds that adolescents experience concentration difficulty and they engage in violent behavior Adolescents use drugs for recreational purposes but they fail to acknowledge the difficulties associated with drug use especially when the drug changes the brain. Adolescents feel a sensation of pleasure and rewards but a continual overstimulation leads to impaired cognitive function and changes in memory. On social effects, drug users are seen as deviants and they are unable to cope up with the stigma surrounding the use of the drug. They end up being lonely due to failure to maintain a social relationship and to fulfill social responsibilities. The research paper recommends that since drug abuse occurs due to many risk factors such as interpersonal risks, brain changes, family factors, and community factors, prevention programs should identify the demographic risks factor and come up with effective prevention approaches that address each risk. As recent research and studies predict the effects of the drug on social, physical, and psychological aspects, future research should focus on effective ways of combating the issue and this will be achieved through a balanced mix of treatment and education to promote physical and mental well-being. 

Literature review

Researchers have examined the physical, social, and psychological effects of illegal and legal substances and they have reported similar findings that legal and illegal drugs have contributed to rapid changes in social, physical, and psychological life. There are many causes of tension in these areas of life but legal and illegal drugs contribute greatly to family disunity, social marginalization, and psychological problems. First, it is important to understand the reasons why people especially young people use the drug. Herpertz-Dahlmann et al. (2013) assert that drug use is common among teenagers between 16 years to 24 years.  Between 16-24 years, the majority use cannabis, and amphetamine sulfate. The widespread fear is not about the prevalence but it is about the effect of these drugs on the social, physical, and psychological wellbeing of the users. It is difficult to create and implement prevention and treatment without understanding why young people use drugs.   Herpertz-Dahlmann et al. (2013) assert that according to the recent literature, young people use legal and illegal drugs to feel better, and increase self-confidence among other purposes such as sleep or lose weight.  For example, amphetamine is an instrumental drug. This means that the drug is used while operating to improve concentration. The research also provides a new understanding that there is a gender difference in using drugs. For example, young females use legal and illegal drugs as a way to interact with their peers. Others use drugs to lose weight and to increase wakefulness. On the other and, males use drugs to increase the risks of using another drug (Herpertz-Dahlmann et al. 2013). There is also an age difference in using drugs in that older users engage more in drug users merely because they do no worry about the future.  A point to note is that all these purposes have implications and much of the literature aims at informing the young users that drugs both legal and illegal are dangerous. The literature also aims to encourage care providers to consider the motivation behind drug use to develop prevention programs  (Herpertz-Dahlmann et al. (2013). For example, the research reports that young people use drugs to fulfill functions. The programmers should target these substances and the functions they influence. 

Having understood the driving force for a drug user, Juarez-Portilla et al (2018) assert that psychoactive drugs affect the nervous system that is responsible for; learning and memory.  The United Nationals Office on drugs and Crime reported that out of billions of people who use psychoactive drugs, 29.5 million are unable to stop using drugs (Juárez‐Portilla et al. 2018).  Note that drug dependence means that the more a person is abusing drugs, the more he is likely to develop cognitive and psychomotor retardation. Unlike drug abusers who only develop symptoms because they are not routine users, drug dependency leads to serious effects.  For example, drugs such as nicotine and amphetamine cause memory loss. What happens is that when these drugs enter into the brain, they affect the mesolimbic dopaminergic system (Juárez‐Portilla et al. 2018).  Parts of this brain system include the cerebral cortex and amygdala. Note that during adolescence, these parts of the brain are developing. When young people are exposed to the drug, parts such as the frontal lobe are damaged and what happens is that the users experience difficulties in acquiring knowledge, reasoning, focusing, low emotional intelligence, and other problems (Juárez‐Portilla et al. 2018).While talking about the driving force to drug use, the literature stated that young people use drugs for different reasons such as feel confident, stay awake, feel energetic, and more. Juarez-Portilla et al (2018) add that stimulant drugs fulfill this role and the results negatively affect the learning and memory. For example, the United Nations Office on Drug and Crime reports that people who use stimulant drugs develop cognitive impairment.

 The World Health Organization report that about one billion people use nicotine. As the research has revealed, young people use drugs to improve executive function, increase focus, gain awareness, and more (Juárez‐Portilla et al. 2018). However, research finds that nicotine increases tolerance or the user is forced to take large amounts to feel the effect. The more the user take a higher amount, the more the drug affects the neurocognitive functions. Brains parts such as the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and hippocampus which are responsible for memory and learning are affected (Juárez‐Portilla et al. 2018).  Methamphetamine is also associated with drug relapse.  As previously reported, young people use methamphetamine for recreational purposes.  However, methamphetamine causes cell death and kills nerves as a result of toxins in the nervous system. Anatomically, the drug affects the front striatal circuit that is responsible for cognitive and behavioral functions. When these circuits are affected, the users develop neurocognitive impairment. The drug also affects the domain transporters and insular and striatum and effects to these parts cause memory impairment, and difficulty in making decisions (Juárez‐Portilla et al. 2018). Cocaine as stated above is also used for recreational purpose but on a negative note, it releases toxins which affect the prefrontal cortex and the effect on the brain part causes an alteration in the behavior and cognitive function.

A depressant drug such as alcohol has a biphasic effect- meaning that alcohol users can use a low amount and feel happy and social. This means that the alcohol is very low in the blood and hence no adverse effects. However, a higher level of alcohol in the blood affects the working memory. This means that the users are unable to retrieve information and repeat the acquire information (Juárez‐Portilla et al. 2018). Cannabis affects the gray matter. This means that the neuronal cell bodies responsible for memory, decision making, seeing, and other roles are decreased. As result, the users develop learning and memory impairment. For example, a randomized clinical trial showed that marijuana consumption impairs working memory. This occurs during acute initiation but later, long-term use affects cognitive abilities. This means that in adulthood, youths who used to use cannabis develop maladaptive behaviors. Anxiety and depression are common among young children aged 8 to 15 years (Juárez‐Portilla et al. 2018).  However, treatment for these conditions is available but they have negative side effects such as cognitive impairment. Other than anxiety and depression, painful injuries that occur during sports activities are managed using anti-inflammatory drugs which cause cognitive impairment.  Finally, cognitive-enhancing drugs or drugs used to treat conditions such as Alzheimer's disease are abused by young people to increase academic performance (Juárez‐Portilla et al. 2018).  However, these drugs do not increase performance in a significant way but rather they are associated with negative cognitive effects.

 The research does not only concentrate on how legal and illegal drugs change the brain but it goes further to shed light on how drug users are unable to cope with social problems.  Substance use starts during adolescence according to the World Health Report that says in 2011, the total number of users of illegal substances was 167 to 315 million and they were between the ages of 15-64 (Poudel, 2016). All users regardless of age experience family and social problems. Note that as stated above, when substance users develop psychological impairment, they do not succeed in life and they end up developing interpersonal problems.  For example, adolescents with cognitive impairments cannot create social relationships nor perform well at school. They experience academic difficulties and hence earn low grades. An important point is that the research reveals that social problems are at a higher level during adolescence. This is because, during the age of initiation which is the adolescence age, substance users move from experimental pattern to compulsive pattern, and by the time they reach the final pattern, they go through significant social problems including school dropout (Poudel, 2016). Smith & Wilson, (2016) add that adolescents do not only experience social problems because they engaged in drug behaviors but social problems are also contributed by parents. For example, parents who use drugs are unable to take care of their children in terms of meeting their basic needs. For example, a national government survey reported that in the U.S population, 9.4% of people aged 12 years use psychoactive substances. The survey also found that the cost of substance abuse was $510.8 billion in 2013 (Smith & Wilson, 2016). The total costs occur in areas such as motor vehicle crashes, loss of employment, property damage, treatment and prevention, and other areas. Children who live in a family where parents use drugs experience conflict and stress and are exposed to risks of abuse. Note that when parents abuse drugs, they develop medical conditions that increase hospitalization. Other parents experience mental health problems and this indicates that they are unable to care for their children and this leads to family instability.  

Another point is that social problems arise due to stigmatization. Note that substance users are seen as complex human beings. They experience bullying, harassment, isolation, limited opportunities among other stereotype (Berliner, 2013). Since the behavior of substance use is seen as immoral behavior, drug users experience social hardships such as lack of friends, lack of employment, lack of finance, and more. In society, drug users experience social inequality an injustice merely because they are socially labeled as bad people. Substance use causes structural violence where drug users are denied their identity and freedom. It is also important to note that social problems are internalized- the society members view the drug users as minorities and expose them to risky behaviors such as drug addiction (Berliner, 2013). Drug users suffer in poverty and they do not access healthcare due to discrimination. They experience economic crisis since they are subjected to lack of employment, and low wages, which increases anxiety and depression. Within the families, drug users experience frustrations merely because their families do not accept them.  As a result of the damaged relationship, drug users develop sadness and shame.

 Furthermore, law students who abuse drugs experience anxiety and stress, but they suffer in silence. Some factors hinder them from seeking help.  The issue of mental health is not empirically studied. However, since 1968, researchers have attempted to examine the issue of mental health of law students and similar findings have been reported by empirical studies conducted in the 1960s and 1970s (Organ et al. 2016). The findings are that law students suffer silently from anxiety and mental health affects their study, behaviors, and social life.  Recent studies (2004-2007) have found the same findings that law students suffer from a physical health problem. In 2014, the mental Health Alliance reported that law students at Yale Law School develop a mental problem that affects their social life.  However, despite similar findings from different studies that law students experience a mental health problem, no research has focused on substance use to examine whether it is the cause of the mental problem (Organ et al. 2016). However, when a national study was done in 1990, it revealed that law students abuse drugs. For example, law students reported alcohol use, marijuana use, cocaine use, and prescription drug use such as anxiety medication and anti-depressants.  Law students also reported the motive behind substance use is to concentrate, increase alertness, and increase academic performance. A screening was done and the screening data showed that law students were positive on depression, anxiety, eating disorders, self-harm, and suicide. The empirical information also revealed that despite the challenges that law students experience, they do not seek help.  On a positive note, law students reported that if they were to seek help, 81% would consult health professionals, and 14% would consult a dean of students.  However, despite the positive response, only 4% of drug users had consulted a health professional (Organ et al. 2016). They reported that they do not seek help as they believe they can address the issue by themselves, and others reported the fear of social stigma. They also reported that seeking help would ruin their academic status.

Discussion

The overall purpose of the literature review was to examine the social, physical, and psychological effects of legal and illegal drugs. Illegal and legal drugs are associated with social problems, physical illness, and psychosocial problems. Drug use is common among adolescences in both developed and developing countries. There is evidence that young people start using the drug at the age of 15 (Kooreman, 2017). Since adolescence is a period when the central nervous system is developing fully, it means that young people will develop cognitive impairment.  For example, alcohol, nicotine, and marijuana harm brain development, and exposure to drugs brings structural changes which will affect the central nervous system. However, it is important to understand that during adolescence, the prefrontal cortex develops and becomes responsible for behavioral performance. This part of the brain will influence the adolescence toward developing new behaviors including risky behaviors such as sentence use (Kooreman, 2017). In this literature review, the first main point is that in addressing the issue of substance use, it is important to understand the natural changes that occur in the brain. It is important to understand that adolescents experience structural changes that may increase the risk of substance use. Thus, drug prevention and treatment policy should be designed in a way that it targets the pre-adolescence and adolescent periods (Kooreman, 2017). For example, having learned that brain change exposes adolescents to risky behaviors, health programs should focus on helping young children and adolescents engage in socially acceptable behaviors such as rock climbing.  It is also vital to come up with a healthy information campaign and provide youth and parents with this scientific information. As they learn about brain development, they will learn that substance use is harmful and therefore they should reject illegal drugs.

 The literature review has also revealed that there are many contributing factors to the drug but the major is family factors. From the literature, there is an evidence that parents' behavior or parents who abuse drugs affect a child's substance abuse. Note that if a parent is a drug user, there is a higher probability that the child will also engage in such behaviors, and more so, they will suffer psychologically, socially, and physically (Smith & Wilson, 2016). Teenagers need support from parents, good communication, positive relationship, and stability.  However, when parents abuse drugs, children will be exposed to poverty, sexual assaults, abuse, and drug use behaviors.  In addressing the issue of drug use, health care providers should consider parental drug abuse since some children are influenced by parental behaviors. Another important point is that stigma is around the issue of drug abuse.  Society believes that people who abuse drugs are deviant and thus, they are discriminated in all social settings (Smith & Wilson, 2016). Substance abusers develop shame and fear and rather than seeking help, they suffer in silence. For example, there is little research concerning why law students suffer from depression and anxiety. Recent research and studies have confirmed that the students’ abuse drugs and they suffer in silence as they fear that it is their fault to engage in such behaviors.  In addressing these issues, it is important to eliminate the myth that surrounds the drug use behavior.  Society needs to know that many factors may drive someone to drug use behaviors. Some factors such as family factors, economic inequality, poverty, and others may influence adolescents toward drug user behaviors (Smith & Wilson, 2016). Thus, public policies should target educating society and also eliminate the negative attitude toward drug abusers.

Conclusion

Today, illegal and legal drug use is a social, physical, and psychological problem. It is estimated that the prevalence is high from the age of 15 and above and users of all ages subject themselves to consumption that affects them socially, physically, and psychologically. Evidence has shown that young people engage in drug use behaviors to stay high and feel relaxed. Cognitive impairment is a common effect of drug users and it occurs during adolescence and adults also experience impairment cognitive functions through dementia, depression, and other illnesses. Cognitive impairment occurs because the drugs interfere with a person's thinking and behaviors. Drug use also has devastating effects on social life where drug users become vulnerable to marginalization and disadvantage. There is evidence that in society, drug users are seen as bad people who should not enjoy social benefits such as education, employment, and healthcare. The issue of drug use is complex since its effects affect every aspect of life. To address the complex problem, a multidisciplinary approach and good partnership are needed to come up with policy and practice that not only focus on the effects but also the contributing factors.

References

Berliner, D. C. (2013). Inequality, Poverty, and the Socialization of America's Youth for the Responsibilities of Citizenship. Theory into Practice, 52(3), 203-209.

Boys, A., Marsden, J., & Strang, J. (2001). Understanding reasons for drug use amongst youn people: a functional perspective. Health education research, 16(4), 457-469.

Juárez‐Portilla, C., Molina‐Jiménez, T., Morin, J., Roldán‐Roldán, G., & Zepeda, R. C. (2018).

Influence of drugs on cognitive functions. Health and Academic Achievement, 59.

Kooreman, H. E. (2017). The impact of substance use on the developing brain. Center Health      Policy.

Organ, J. M., Jaffe, D. B., & Bender, K. M. (2016). Suffering in silence: The survey of law Student

well-being and the reluctance of law students to seek help for substance use And mental health

concerns. Journal of Legal Education, 66(1), 116-156.

Poudel, A., Sharma, C., Gautam, S., & Poudel, A. (2016). Psychosocial problems among

Individuals with substance use disorders in drug rehabilitation centers, Nepal. Substance

Abuse Treatment, Prevention, and Policy, 11(1), 28.

Smith, V. C., & Wilson, C. R. (2016). Committee on Substance Use and Prevention. Families      affected by parental substance use. Pediatrics, 138(2), e20161575.

Importance of image

Introduction

An individual’s perception and attitude to life is greatly influenced by the interactions and experiences that one has with other people in the community and society in general. Image is therefore important in society as it allows people to formulate an idea about someone or a place in order to determine how to interact with the individual. In ‘At the VA, healing the doctor patient relationship’ the author points out how image can affect the doctor patient relationship to a point where it negatively affects the quality of care provided. Macmillan Cottom adds on to this notion in his work ‘the logic of stupid poor people’ by discussing the importance of image on first impressions especially during interviews. A similar argument is presented by Larry Lehna as he narrates his experiences in prison in ‘The Look’. From the three stories, it is evident that image is an important aspect in society as it influences how people interact with one another and the perceptions they make concerning the environment they live in and the events that transpire therein.

The theme of image is present in Kheirbek’s story as it discusses how the perceptions a patient has regarding a country and its people affect doctor patient relationships. A good example is the case where the physician tries to find common ground with a soldier so as to offer assistance. At first, the relationship is tense because the soldier has a negative image about the land where doctor comes from (Kheiberk 206). The image is as a result of the perception formulated by the patient regarding people from the Middle East as they remind him of his experiences in combat.  He considers people from such regions as backward and uncivilized. To him, Americans were wealthy enough to treat used parachutes as trash while the locals saw them as valuable commodities as they could make tents as they lacked the means to afford proper housing. It was not until the physician helped the patient to see that his image of the locals does not account for all locals that the two are able to interact and come to terms on how to go about improving the patient doctor relationship.

Image is important as it helps to denote the predisposition and character of a person, to some extent, on occasions that require people to judge a person’s character but with limited access to information regarding the person. This is evident in Cottom’s recollection of how image has influenced her career life. While in college, Cottom narrates how a manager had formulated the opinion that she (Cottom) was okay because her car was always clean (Cottom 978). Since the manager did not know Cottom well, his perception about the type of person Cottom is was based off of the image he had formulate about Cottom based on the appearance of her car. Another example is when Cottom had gone to an interview for a call center position but was hired as a trainer because her dressing was considered to classy for the position she had applied for (Cottom 979). Although most jobs hire on the basis of academic qualifications, image is used as a differentiating factor in some cases as was evident in Cottom’s experiences.

In Larry Lehna’s ‘The Look’, image is described as the major factor that determines the type of experience that prisoners have while serving their prison sentence. When Lehna was sent to prison, he spent the first days trying to perfect an expression that would trick others into thinking he was dangerous. When he perfected the look, Lehna attests that some prisoners kept their distance from him out of fear while others portrayed respect and wariness (Lehna 225). Since most inmates did not know Lehma on a personal level, their actions towards him after he had mastered the look give enough evidence to support the claim that image can positively or negatively affect people’s perception of one another and the community they live in.

Lehna’s experiences however denote that image can also be misinterpreted and people can develop wrong perceptions of others and events occurring around them. After spending a significant amount of time in prison, Lehna had gotten so used to the look from other prisoners that he stopped trusting people (Lehna 226). After he was released from prison however, he still retained the image he had formulated about people and their deceptions. Lehna’s image of people was however altered by Noreen Rhues as her character and predisposition was the exact opposite of the inmates Lehna interacted with while in prison.

Conclusion

The success of any community is determined by people’s willingness to set aside differences and peacefully coexist despite the existence of these differences. Since it is impossible to know every detail about society and the people in it, it is a common approach for people to rely on constructs in society such as image to try and reach a common ground. Image is therefore important as it determines the nature of relationships that people build with one another. Although these perceptions can be altered, some images form stereotypes that govern society and the people in it.

References

Kheirbek “At the VA, healing the doctor patient relationship”

Lehna “The Look”

Tressie McMillan Cottom “The logic of stupid poor people”

Conceptual Differences Between Cognitive, Behavioral, and Neuroscience Approaches To Learning

 Abstract

            Learning process involves the five human senses. Capturing each human sense for learning purposes is a challenging task hence the need to study individual learning approaches. Behavioral learning approaches are normally aligned to certain brain activities. Thus, there is a connection between the brain and underlying behavior. Attention span dictates thought processing and ability to comprehend and capture content and at this point cognitive perspectives to learning are introduced to learning. The brain and its functionalities and operations cannot be separated from learning process.

Introduction

 Assessment of separate variances plays a critical part in the cognitive neuroscience research of functioning memory and executive control. Numerous examinations evaluating functional memory's neural substrates have for a long time depended on the link between brain actions and task performance interventions or characteristic processes of cognitive capabilities. Nevertheless, there are vital conceptual procedural matters which relate the usage of separate variances interventions to clarify brain activation configurations (Yarkoni, & Braver, 2010). These issues enable the interpretation of connections. Cognitive concepts ascertain that humans can process and consolidate cognitive information. Hence, cognitive psychology focuses on mental processes influencing visible actions or human traits. Cognitive psychology attempts to comprehend ideas such as memory and decision-making process. On the other hand, behaviorism only centers its ideals on visible human behavior. Behaviorism claims that humans can obtain knowledge by connecting one event with a specified outcome and the outcome will affect human decision making. Additionally, behaviorism states that events occurring concurrently will be related together and thus have the same reaction. Both psychological fields try to comprehend the underlying workings of the human brain.

Conceptual Differences

 Cognitive

 The cognitive perspective relies on understanding observable human behavior. Hence dwells on studying internal mechanisms explaining brain functions which will then account for the observable behavior. This branch of psychology examines internal mental procedures individuals use daily such as thinking, observing, recalling, and learning. The main objective of cognitive psychology is obtaining information on attaining, handling, and keeping information within the brain (Davidson, & Kaszniak, 2015). Scientists apply cognitive psychology concepts in the improvement of memory, increment of decision making precision, and constituting educational programs to boost learning processes. More so, cognitive psychology is related to fields such as neuroscience, philosophy, language, and engineering strategies. Experts in cognitive psychology make use of science mechanisms to examine procedures hence does not depend on subjective opinions. From 1950 to 1970s, experts opted for a behavioral approach as it center on subjects such as attention, recollection, and resolving complex issues. During the 1960s, psychologists described cognitive psychology as a subject matter involving all processes through which sensory inputs are converted, condensed, enlarged, put away, improved, and used. This cognitive field is concerned with these procedures even if they occur without a pertinent stimulus. Therefore, cognitive takes part in everything human beings participate in or carry out.

 Similarly, educational strategists have been exploring different ways in which individual tactics respond to problems within the academic surrounding (Walter, 2012). The cognitive strategy considers the intellectual, emotional, and behavioral mechanisms people utilize to attain personal goals and assess the results emerging from their actions. Unlike behavioral psychology, cognitive concepts try to find definite meaning. Based on findings from previous researches, individuals absorb significant content by relating new information to long term memory details. There are three different types of cognitive learning mechanisms- accretion, schema creation, and tuning. Accretion refers to memorizing factual details. Schema generation relates concepts to examples, analogies, and other forms of interactions. Schema revolves around practicing and perfecting concepts. Cognitive structured strategies normally modify other forms of learning strategies hence preferred most of the time. More so, cognitive strategies are adoptive and take into account other factors. The main principle of cognitive learning is absorbing information while interacting with learning material. For example, cognitive apprenticeship is one of the most effective ways of learning new content.

Behavioral

This method relies on the fact that individuals react to stimuli in their surroundings. The role of the teacher, therefore, is providing applicable and beneficial stimuli so that individuals react to and absorb information and experience (Barron et al., 2015). The behavioral perspective to learning revolves around the fact that character can be acquired through persistent replication of activity with facilitator feedback. Positive feedback motivates and emphasizes accomplishment while negative response and instant rectification discourage the action. This is known as conditioning. Conditioning develops and perfects actions. The connection between stimulus-reaction can be reinforced and conditioned further. Reinforcement can either be bad or good. An optimistic reinforce builds up a preferable outcome. In teaching, the desired outcome is learning, for instance, verbalizing concepts and acknowledging good performance encourages students to perform better. Besides, the behavioral approach depends on defining the right and wrong way. The students need to separate facts from fiction. This way, the teacher has to apply external pressure in order to encourage the students to achieve better results. Consequently, the interaction between the learner and the surrounding helps the student learn through conditioning mechanisms (Hughes et al., 2011). Hence, behavior results from a reaction to surrounding stimulation. Behaviorism is centered on visible stimulus and reaction characteristics. Behaviorism highlights external factors affecting learner’s mannerisms. Thus, behaviorism concepts focus on aspects of facilitating effective learning. Regulated observation and behavior assessment prove that behaviorism ideas are operative and effective. While using behaviorism concepts, experts suggest the usage of operational definitions such as subject matter and other information related to the topic of the day. Even though behaviorists usually accept the role cognition and emotions play in learning but the rather rely on observable patterns and other external factors influencing change. As a result, internal occurrences such as thought processes are explained through observable mechanisms (Kiefer, & Pulvermüller, 2012). Furthermore, behaviorists claim that there are distinct differences between animal and human behavior. Animals acquire behavior from the surroundings while human behavior can be conditioned and learned. All kinds of behavior can be designed into a straightforward stimulus-response interrelation. The main aim of behavioral psychologists is predicting stimuli and reactions in certain situations. Predicting behavior helps in regulating activities and consequences emerging from certain outcomes. Introspection establishes the connection between behavior and actions without the inclusion of consciousness (Wiecki et al., 2015). In an attempt to develop a unitary system, behaviorist realized that if human behavior is not controlled or managed, man can turn into a beast. Human behavior with all its complexities and refinement account only for a small portion of behavioral concepts. Thus, some behaviors cannot be predicted or accounted for.

 Neuroscience

 Altering the brain to assist it to absorb more content or material. For learning to take place, the brain has to be able to respond to stimuli and generate neurons. Numerous brain regions are involved in the learning process (Krakauer et al., 2017). These regions are linked to memory functionalities, several senses, preference regulation, and higher amounts of intellectual functionalities. For more emphasis, stress and action are connected. The stimulus to study requires rational stress levels. Minimal stress levels lead to poor performance. The same can be said about extreme stress levels due to reduced brain actions within the cortical regions where learning takes place. Balanced amounts of cortisol stimulate more performance while undertaking any task. In other words, moderate levels of stress are vital for learning while extreme stress is harmful to the learning process. Moderate levels of stress can be produced in various ways- calming the environment, or introducing learning activities that need personal participation (Stanovich, 2012). Nevertheless, people react differently under different circumstances. The generation of cortisol in reaction to an occurrence fluctuates considerably between individuals. Moderate stress may be extreme for another person and vice versa. For instance, criticizing students may discourage poor performance and encourage them to perform better under any circumstances.

 Getting enough sleep, a healthy diet, and regular exercise are some of the effective habits meant to boost learning outcomes in the long run. First of all, adequate sleep, proper nutrition, and consistent exercises enhance neuroplasticity and neurogenesis. Secondly, these aspects maintain cortisol and dopamine levels at suitable levels (Davidson, & Kaszniak, 2015). For instance, skipping meals, staying up all night and sedentary lifestyles reduce brain activity hence affecting overall academic performance. On the other hand, active learning involves cognitive functions. Activities such as recalling and comprehending concepts are linked to the hippocampus part of the brain. High amounts of cognitive functions such as assessments, examination, and application involve cortical parts. The cortical brain helps humans to make informed decisions, correlating, and inspiration. Multifaceted thought processes are more helpful for acquiring information due to the involvement of numerous neural connections. Active learning makes use of neural connection and coordination to stimulate various brain sections and enhance memory retention.

When memory is transferred from short term to long term, the mechanism is known as consolidation. Reconsolidation happens whenever memory is retrieved from long term to functioning memory and then returned long term. Reconsolidated memories are restructured and are different from the initial memories. Both periods and settings differ hence initial consolidation has to be different from the reconsolidation process. Retrieving a functional memory and using it to solve a challenge may be frustrating. An additional vital feature of memory is forgetfulness (Kiefer, & Pulvermüller, 2012). The learning system depends entirely on memory hence forgetfulness aspects of the brain cannot be factored out of the equation. Hence the concept of relearning is to be incorporated in different sectors of learning institutions. Flawed evidence ought to be forgotten and straightforward explanations pushed forward to make the learning process effective and raise comprehensiveness.

Neuroscience principles rely on three concepts- retention, learning process, and comprehending information. The difference between learning and comprehending is that learning emerges from the use of long term memory and the capability to draw out information from long term memories (Yarkoni, & Braver, 2010). Comprehending is being able to apply learned information within a new situation. Memories occur because of the biological interconnection between brain cells and neurons. Each section of the brain complements other sections of the brain hence facilitating the continuity between the cells.

 In summary, cognitive perspectives state that humans can process and organize information while behaviorism centers its approach on observable behavior. Humans can acquire information by connecting specific events with outcomes. Hence, humans will align their actions to desired outcomes. The cognitive approach helps in understanding the internal processes of the brain. For instance, recollection, concentrating, and processing information. The key concept in the cognitive perspective is how people obtain, process, and store information. The behaviorist perspectives tend to rely on the interaction between the external surrounding and the response. Neuroscience exposes different brain functionalities and how they coordinate to bring about remembrance and obtaining information during the learning process.

References

Barron, A. B., Hebets, E. A., Cleland, T. A., Fitzpatrick, C. L., Hauber, M. E., & Stevens, J. R. (2015). Embracing multiple definitions of learning. Trends in neurosciences, 38(7), 405-407.

Davidson, R. J., & Kaszniak, A. W. (2015). Conceptual and methodological issues in research on mindfulness and meditation. American Psychologist, 70(7), 581.

Hughes, S., Barnes-Holmes, D., & De Houwer, J. (2011). The dominance of associative theorizing in implicit attitude research: Propositional and behavioral alternatives. The Psychological Record, 61(3), 465-496.

Kiefer, M., & Pulvermüller, F. (2012). Conceptual representations in mind and brain: theoretical developments, current evidence and future directions. cortex, 48(7), 805-825.

Krakauer, J. W., Ghazanfar, A. A., Gomez-Marin, A., MacIver, M. A., & Poeppel, D. (2017). Neuroscience needs behavior: correcting a reductionist bias. Neuron, 93(3), 480-490.

Poldrack, R. A., Kittur, A., Kalar, D., Miller, E., Seppa, C., Gil, Y., ... & Bilder, R. M. (2011). The cognitive atlas: toward a knowledge foundation for cognitive neuroscience. Frontiers in neuroinformatics, 5, 17.

Stanovich, K. E. (2012). On the distinction between rationality and intelligence: Implications for understanding individual differences in reasoning.

Walter, H. (2012). Social cognitive neuroscience of empathy: concepts, circuits, and genes. Emotion Review, 4(1), 9-17.

Wiecki, T. V., Poland, J., & Frank, M. J. (2015). Model-based cognitive neuroscience approaches to computational psychiatry: clustering and classification. Clinical Psychological Science, 3(3), 378-399.

Yarkoni, T., & Braver, T. S. (2010). Cognitive neuroscience approaches to individual differences in working memory and executive control: conceptual and methodological issues. In Handbook of individual differences in cognition (pp. 87-107). Springer, New York, NY.