Spanish Colonial Revival Design

Spanish colonial revival design is an architectural design that comes up in the early 20th century, and it was related to the Spanish colonial architecture. This also had a relationship on the colonization of Americans by Spain. The exhibition which was carried out in 1915 in San Diego, enabled some of the architect to expose the work that they have done, this thus provided Bertram Goodhue with an opportunity which then has been considered so far to have increased the popularity of the style in the nation. The popularity was high between the year 1915 and the year 1931.

             The international exposition facilitated attention on the Spanish colonial revival design. Some of the examples are, the mission revival style Pavillion at the white stucco during an exhibition in Chicago and the Electric tower together with the Mission Inn of the Pan-American exposition that occurred the year 1900 in Bufallo. The designs has brought in many other architectural elements that were combined to bring out the style that was intended. Examples are pediments and colonnades.

            The Spanish Colonial Revival design was not really used in Florida until the around the year 1910 when it was then recognized and applied by the architect from that area. The style was greatly accepted in Florida and St. Cloud for both homes and for commercial buildings which most of them were created by the Ida Annah Ryan and Isabel Roberts. Spanish Colonial Revival can also be followed to have come from Mediterranean revival architecture design (Baker, 2018). There were also designed hotels which are in the Mediterranean revival and others in the Spanish revival style in the years back. With the arrival of the three hotels, that is Ponce de Leon Hotel, Alcazar Hotel and Hotel Cordova, thousands of people who visited the country enjoyed and appreciated the style which was influenced by the Spanish Colonial Revival design. The hotels were built by greatly applying Spanish revival designs just like other buildings, that the style was applied earlier in their construction. Therefore, buildings that had been constructed earlier became the basis for construction of the hotels.

The Spanish design was majorly also practiced along the coastal cities of California. This was made popular after the San Diego Panama-California exposition. In the exhibition areas varios structures were constructed in order to enable other people to see what the design entails and how it might look like. Cities such as the Santa Barbara also adopted the style, and this was after an earthquake destroyed the city (Skewes-Cox & Sweeney, 2015). The Spanish Colonial Revival style was also used in other developmental areas such as construction of real estates which had been seen in some areas such as California where many buildings were constructed.

There is also the style such as the Spanish Baroque and Churrigueresque. Baroque is a term that was derived from Portuguese Barocco and the design was popular for almost 200 years in both Europe and Latin America and there was support from a Spanish court to build the churches in that style. The style was more emotional and not rational because it created an illusion, enlarged domes and better-designed interiors to create chiaroscuro effects.

Churrigueresque is an example of the Spanish baroque style that has extreme details which are usually in the front view of the building entrance. This design got its name after architect and sculptor, Jose Benito de Churriguera, he was Madrid where he was born. The style that was named after him was widely used in the Spanish Colonial Revival in the current world.

The design was later popularized after an exhibition which was done in San Diego where most of the buildings wherein the Baroque Spanish design. The design also had a significant influence on the production of 1920s movie concerning the great palaces

The Spanish colonial revival design had a different origin in Mexico from the ones that were developed in the United States. After the Mexican revolution, there was an emphasis on the culture of the nation and also the architecture. There was an influence in Mexico in 1915 to set up the viceregal architecture as the national identity (O'Rourke, 2017). To promote this, tax exception was even offered to the individuals who built their how using the colonial style. In the 1920s, there was a rise in the number of houses that were created with elements of plateresque such as, pinnacles, grotesques and mixtilinear arches.

In the Philippines, the architecture was greatly influenced by the Latin-America and the Iberian. This influence was after the colonial rule by Spain which lasted for over 300 years. Before it was conquered by the United States, the mission style and the Spain colonial revival style had already been used with its inspiration being from California. There was also the development of the buildings with American amenities by the American architect. It was also involved in modernizing the buildings.

In Australia, there was an influential architect who went to Spain and came back with style to the country during the early years of the 20th centuries. They influenced the population and even claimed that the Mediterranean styles were the best and it suited the country’s climate and also the lifestyle of the individual (McAlester, 2015). Between the years 1920-1930, the style was the most popular and was better understood in other part. The people of Australia during this time were able to learn and have knowledge concerning the designs from movies and also magazines they that found and the information was available.

There were also various houses that were built in Shanghai, this was the town of China, and the homes with style was built in the former French Concession. The inspiration to build using the style is significantly linked with Hollywood movies, and this is because the culture of the people of that place has no relationship with that of the people of Spanish origin.

The Spanish colonial Revival where more popular during the period of the 1920s and the 1930s this is because of the style which had. They were characterized by well-carved decoration on their entrances, the windows and also on the cornices. However, the mission and the Mediterranean and the mission styles had plain and somehow flat surfaces, but they exhibited a complex and intensely designed surface. Other characteristics include the arcaded entrances and porches, curvilinear gables and parapets, bell towers, canvas awnings, casement windows, smooth stucco walls and chimneys, decorative iron trim, hipped red tile roof. It also included a loggia, ornaments of terra cotta or cast concrete and carved and molded capitals.

References

Baker, J. M. (2018). American House Styles: A Concise Guide. The Countryman Press.

McAlester, V. S. (2015). A Field Guide to American Houses: The Definitive Guide to Identifying and Understanding America's Domestic Architecture. Knopf.

O'Rourke, K. E. (2017). Modern Architecture in Mexico City: History, Representation, and the Shaping of a Capital. University of Pittsburgh Press.

Skewes-Cox, P., & Sweeney, R. (2015). Spanish Colonial Style: Santa Barbara and the Architecture of James Osborne Craig and Mary McLaughlin Craig. Rizzoli Publications.

 Book review

            All Quiet on the Western Front by Erich Maria Remarque is a book that shows the challenges and hardships that soldiers had to endure during the war. Unlike most stories that favor one side of the two parties at war, Remarque goes into great detail explaining the inhumane experiences that soldiers from both sides of the war went through in the name of fighting for their country. The author uses the character Paul Baumer a German soldier who was positioned on the western front during world war one to paint a picture of the hardships that soldiers had to endure during the war. While most soldiers are presented as being driven by honor and the desire to serve one’s country, the book gives a different view on the attitude of soldiers especially because of the toll that the war had on the soldiers and the traumatizing experiences they had to endure. While most people may have assumed that it was all quiet on the western front during the war, Remarque brings the reality of the situation to life by showing the impact of war not only on the victims but also on the soldiers from both sides during and after the war.

            From the author, World War One was an evolving historical experience that saw armies from both sides adapt to changes that brought promise of a victory in the war. A good example is when Paul goes back to the front after taking his leave. He realizes that some changes have been adopted as there are more guns and new aeroplanes to aid in securing victory (Remarque 1928). The advancements in technology also bring in more advanced weapons like tanks and special aircraft used by both sides. Although the developments during the war were aimed at ensuring victory, the new technology and weapons also added to the number of casualties as both sides became better at killing the enemy (Remarque 1928). World War one is therefore presented as a historical experience full of death and destruction as countries kept coming up with different ways to kill each other all in the name of winning the war.

            The events of what transpired during the war are brought to life by the character Paul Baumer who is shown to conform to the views that existed regarding the war especially in the German home front. Like many people during this time, Paul views the war as an opportunity to serve his country and as such, he is determined, and even jovial, when his performing his duties as a soldier (Remarque 1928). The idea that he has of the war during this time is mostly based on the opinions and beliefs that had become a popular view of the war. To some extent, Paul and his friends are excited at the opportunity to go to war and serve their country. They all enjoy the perks of being soldiers such as playing card games and drinking when not on duty (Remarque 1928). Simple pleasures such as receiving letters from home add on to the belief that the war is just a bump in the way and that the soldiers will come out victorious, a belief held not only by the soldiers but also by all Germans when the war started.

            Another way in which Paul conforms to the views regarding the war is after the seriousness of the situation dawns on him and the realities of the war begin to change. Paul soon realizes that the number of planes and guns is increasing due to the need for more soldiers. However, even with the increase in the number of German soldiers, they are still ill equipped and outnumbered as there are five enemy soldiers for every German soldier (Remarque 1928). The enemy has also increased their firepower and the loss of lives on both sides makes the severity of the war even more catastrophic especially to the Germans. At this point, Paul begins to adopt to the common view that German may actually loose the war due to the devastating loss of German soldiers.

            The realization is brought about by the experiences that Paul, like most soldiers, go through at the western front. A lot of men are killed during the war and others are severely injured. Paul and his fellow soldiers are exposed to horrific sites of their fellow soldiers being severely injured and even killed by the enemy. Most of their soldiers lose limbs and suffer serious body harm. Some even have to drag themselves out of the warzone as their legs and arms have been ripped off by the weapons used by the enemy (Remarque 1928). Like most Germans, the war for Paul seizes to be a duty to country as they soon realize that it is a battle they are likely to lose. The loss of life and increase in strength from the enemy does away with the previous beliefs of an assured victory and Paul soon comes to terms with the fact that the Germans may lose the war.

            If novelist accounts about significant historical events were unread, we would miss out on the great deal of information brought by people who actually experienced the events. People would therefore be subjected to hearsay, stereotypes and wishful thinking from people who are either biased or more determined to narrate a positive image of one side of the story instead of narrating the actual truth (Remarque 1928). In the case of Paul, for example, it would have been difficult to understand what really happened during the war without understanding the attitudes and beliefs from the soldiers themselves. A good example is the case where soldiers in the book admit to not recalling how exactly they ended up in the war. Together with his comrades, Paul entertains the idea that war should be fought in a form of ceremony where the generals are given a platform to work out their issues instead of involving an entire country and a great deal of loss of life in the process (Remarque 1928). The soldiers believe that some disputes can be settled without the unnecessary loss of human life especially because most of them were inadequately trained and not ready for war.

            From its title, the book All Quiet on the Western Front tries to do away with the misconceptions that people have towards war. It starts off by introducing Paul, a soldier who has bought in to the idea that fighting for one’s country brings honor. Though this may be true, Paul and his comrades soon discover the atrocities of the war and begin to question the need for all that bloodshed. Furthermore, they are inadequately equipped and lack simple needs such as adequate food. The book therefore creates a better understanding of what actually happens in war and tries to do away with misplaced beliefs and stereotypes to reveal the hardships that soldiers go through when performing their duties.

Reference

Remarque M, (1928) “All Quiet on the Western Front” Ullstein Verlag, print

 Issues debated in the New York constitution ratification convention

Introduction

In June the year 1788, politicians met in New York in a convention to discuss ratification of the constitution of the United States. The convention was dominated by both federalist and anti-federalists who both had a different perspective on what was good for New York. The federalists felt that there was no need to rectify anything in the constitution because they believed that the constitution as it stood at that time only limited the government but not the people. However, the anti-federalists felt that the constitution was giving much power to the central government and without a bill of rights the government would oppress the people. Alexander Hamilton and Robert R. Livingston were the key federalist speakers while Melancton Smith was the most profound speaker of the anti-federalists. Issues such as source of corruption, the constitutions effect on the on the state and representation in congress were debated. These topics were argued out and both federalist and anti-federalists expressed their opinion and view on those topics.

Melancton Smith spoke on how the congress was unfairly represented ,he argued that those elected to represent people should know the distresses of those they represent having gone through same distresses and they should have the interest of the people in mind and in heart .He emphasized that the knowledge required to represent the people should not be the one acquired by getting refined education, that is gotten by men who have the leisure to do so .The knowledge should be acquired by experiencing the same struggles as those they serve, thus making those in the middle class more qualified compared to men in the superior class(Hamilton, Madison & Jay, 2009).  He was emphasizing that when the number of representatives is increased people’s confidence in the government will increase since all social classes will be well represented.

Smith went further and emphasized that for one to exercise the power of taxing others one requires more than the simple understanding of the taxing system. It calls for the capability to understand the ability of the people and how the burden of the tax imposed will affect people of different classes. He argued if the constitution was ratified the number of congress members would increase and thus favoring all people from different social classes since the congress was full of famous, wealthy people who were able to command attention and get votes to congress since a mere middle class man could not afford to get votes since the coverage area was too wide for him to be noticed (Hamilton, Madison & Jay, 2009).

Melancton Smith also felt that if the middle class were elected into congress. They would employ time to serve the people well since he viewed them as people with less temptations and people inclined by habits. Unlike Those in the upper class who do not feel the inconveniences that arise from small amount of wages and payments and do not struggle to acquire property. According to him these rich men feel that they are to be shown more respect, they fancy themselves since they feel as if they have a right to everything and all of them possess the same feelings and motives (Kennedy, & Bailey, 2010). He gave enough reasons why the number of congress seats should be increased so as to give those in the middle class a chance to represent the people since he believed they would do great job at representing people compared to those wealthy men who are given the duty to represent people and do not know the struggles of those people.

Hamilton who was federalist opposed the suggestion to increase the seats in congress by trying to convince the politicians that the confidence of the people will not be increased by having many representations but would only be gained by a good administration. He used the example of Rome where the people were represented by ten tribunes and despite how small this body was it was able to govern Rome properly since the people had placed their confidence in them. He continued his argument by proposing that small bodies are more likely to achieve prosperity which is due to wise thinking and a vigorous execution and large bodies are not likely to achieve this (Hamilton, Henry, Jay, Madison, & Bryan, 2017). This clearly asserts that the federalists did not feel any need to add the number of representatives in the congress.

Hamilton continued to oppose the increase of representatives by suggesting that it wasn’t necessary and could not mean that the people will be served better than before. He says that the opinion to increase representation in the congress was founded on an assumption that all community needed to be represented in the house of congress. He viewed this idea as absurd since it was under the observation of a few men compared to the number of people at the convention. He argued that those in the upper class were wrongly judged. He further argued that all men are gentlemen and that the aristocracy does not exist as smith had suggested (Siemers, 2003). He closes his argument by arguing that the vices of the wealthy are more likely to favor the posterity of the state compared to the vices of those from other social classes.

On the issue of the source of corruption bot the federalists and anti-federalists believed that corruption arose due to people’s pursuit of power and fame. Although they differed because the federalists believed that those seeking government office did not do so for personal gain but did so to serve. The anti-federalists believed that the constitution gave the wealthy with ambitions for power and fame the opportunity to be corrupt in pursuit for more wealth, fame and power. Robert R. Livingston who came from one of the most influential and wealthy families of New York rose in defense of the federalists. He says the rich are as honest as any other class in the society. According to him the rich are less likely to be corrupt since they are not likely to be self-centered unlike men from other social classes. He says that the concerns of the poor are more self-centered while the concerns of the rich are of others and this would nor result into corruption (Hamilton, Madison & Jay, 2009). Therefore the federalists did not see the need to ratify the constitution on the basis of corruption.

Hamilton went further in proving that the constitution does not give the rich the reins to commit corruption. He says that the highest offices cannot be held by those in the middle class since they are ignorant men. When competing for such offices the poor and ignorant will envy the rich and successful competitor. He further says that the rich do not enjoy the suffrage of the poor and all people are aristocrats since aristocracy is not measured in wealth but by merit. He furthers his argument on asking who will represent people since the anti-federalists opposes the rich, learned on wise on the basis that they are aristocrats. He urges the people not to choose the aristocrats but people who they have confidence in. He questions how they will form a government composed of all classes (Payan, 2004). He clearly opposes the opinion of the federalist on the source of corruption.

Melancton Smith defends his argument by saying Hamilton was distorting his ideas in the name of explaining them, he complains that Hamilton is trying to make him look like an enemy of the rich which was not true. He explained that he was trying to argue that people from all social classes have something that influence them. He argued that it is not true that the poor are not concerned about the distresses of others because they know how it feels to be in distress unlike the rich who have not experienced distress. He argues that the rich are more ambitious than the poor in pursuit of more success and wealth. He says that it is true that those less fortunate will put in genuine effort to acquire wealth but he will not harm his country and fellow countrymen by using corruption to attain his ambitions (Payan, 2004). 

The other debated topic in the Ney York constitution ratification convention was the effect the constitution would have on the powers of the state government. The federalists believed that the constitution would give power to federal government thus allowing it to operate independently and giving it power to carry out activities such as taxation and international relationship. Anti-federalist felt that the constitution was giving too much power to the federal union thus making them prone to corruption. Melancton Smith argued that the anti-federalists feared that the nation was too large and therefore the national government would not be able to respond to the concerns of citizens’ made on local basis. He also expressed their concern on the absence of bills of rights that were not present in the original text of the constitution. They wanted to be guaranteed protection of liberties such as freedom of speech and right to trial (Vile, 2006). The federalists were in support of a government that was dominated by one group that would safe guard and protect the people and the state.

Conclusion

There was no hidden motive since both the federalist and the anti-federalists were looking out for the people and the state in the way they felt most fit. Although the difference in social classes is well visible since the federalists are described as people who came from wealthy and influential families an example being one of the key speakers in the convention, Alexander Hamilton who came from an influential background. They are described as aristocrats by the anti federalists who come from the middle class. Despite the difference in opinion and the bitter debate between the federalist and the anti-federalist the constitution was ratified and the anti-federalists agreed to support the amendments since their concern such as including a bill of rights in the new constitution was one of the amendments.

Hamilton, A., Henry, P., Jay, J., Madison, J., & bryan, S. (2017). Federalist vs. Anti-Federalist:   The Great Debate (Complete Articles & Essays in One Volume): Words that Traced the         Path of the Nation--Founding Fathers' Political and Philosophical Debate, Their          Opinions and Arguments about the Constitution. Frankfurt am Main: Madison & Adams

Siemers, D. J. (2003). The antifederalists: Men of great faith and forbearance. Lanham:   Rowman & Littlefield.

Payan, G. (2004). The federalists and anti-federalists: How and why political parties were           formed in young America. New York: Rosen Pub. Group.

Hamilton, A., Madison, J., & Jay, J. (2009). The Federalist papers. Chicago, IL: American Bar    Association.

Kennedy, D. M., & Bailey, T. A. (2010). The American spirit: United States history as seen by             contemporaries: To 1877. Boston, MA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.

Vile, J. R. (2006). A companion to the United States Constitution and its amendments. Westport (Conn.: Praeger.

Introduction

The past of slavery in Texas, is of great concern and relevant to the present societies. It began in 1821, when Moses Austin got a go ahead to start an Anglo-American colony near the banks of Colorado and Brazos. Before the project commenced, some people claim, the area had few Negro occupants in towns such as Bexar but the number was insignificant. Most Negroes in Bexar were maidservants to wealthy families living in the area. When Europeans started arriving from United States, the growth of opulent low lands of Texas triggered the commencement of a new era. This paper seeks to clear the air around slavery in Texas, its role in the political, economic, social systems of the time.

 Main Argument

 The bone of contention lies in building Texas on the backbone of slavery or take the normal route and employ workers who require payment after a day’s work. In the year 1896, W.E.B Dubois argued that the national prohibition placed on importation at the beginning of 1808 was ineffective and was of no consequence since people found alternative routes even after reinforcing the ban on importation later in 1810. In the coming years, other scholars claimed that Dubois exaggerated post-1808 imports because he could not differentiate between American inhabitants and ships bringing in Africans into American regions and other systems moving them to various destination especially Cuba (Kelley,2008,406). Simply put, the ban was an attempt at regulating slavery by stopping importation of Africans to serve as slaves in Texas firms. While some scholars have no doubt that Africans found their way into American soil even after the ban, most concur that the number was minimal.

 In a breakthrough survey conducted in 1969, Phillip Curtin stated that unlawful trade was minute and could not sway demography among Black Americans populaces. In addition, David Eltis’s book on the end years of transatlantic trade, ascertained that after a tremendous increase in the number of slaves within the first decade or more and then implementing the ban on slave trade, the number of slaves declined tremendously (Kelley, 2008, 408). For instance, in 1820, the number of slaves dropped to 2300 from ten thousand. However, given the subtle nature of slave trade, no one can be certain that the number of slaves dropped after putting a ban on importation or to what extent was the ban effective as people found various ways of smuggling slaves into Texas. However, most scholars argue that the number of slaves entering the border after the ban was not significant to render the ban useless or ineffective.

The second reason was political and nurtured from Texas’s borderland area. The Mexican government tried their level best to keep Texas from becoming part of America (Kelley, 2008, 414). Mexico took some strict measures in ensuring Texas remained part and parcel of Mexican government. Mexico was against slavery despite Anglo protests, which disrupted progress and growth in Texas plantations. Therefore, the internal wrangles within Texas hindered progress.

 Factors contributing to slavery in Texas

Texas was a hub for slavery because of the large number of plantations within Brazoria County. Correspondingly, Brazoria County encouraged the importation of illegal slaves into Texas. On the other hand, African Americans went to Brazoria looking for job opportunities due to the presence of industrial centers in the area. Hence, the two factors integrated bringing African Americans into Brazoria County(Kelley, 2008, 420). Furthermore, fast increasing demand for slave made items such as cotton, encouraged expansion of agrarian farmsteads from the coast into the mainland and slaves did most of the work within those farmsteads.

Counter argument

Most of the times, scholars claim that Texas slavery only lasted for two decades, thus insignificant. Texas slavery is exceptional due to the involvement of other nations such as Mexico (Shelton, 2007, 157). Depending on the situation, Texas had people against the trade and some were for it. Early slave-owners had few slaves but the number was enough to construct a plantation. For instance, Groce had 99 slaves and that was enough to complete a plantation near the Brazos River. Hence, slave-owners used the slaves as cheap labor and ensured they got a profit from the farms slaves cultivated for them. In terms of social life, slaves satisfied the sexual desires of their masters consequently leading to another dimension of oppression through prostitution. During the 1850s, brothels sprung up meeting the needs of seamen.

In summary, At the start of 1840s, immigrants from various parts of Europe streamed into Galveston with an aim of buying farms and building their wealth. Some of the immigrants from geographical zones such as Germany were not racists  hence interacted freely with  slaves, a fact, slaves took note of. Hence, slaveholders saw immigrants as a threat to slave communities. Consequently, anyone not strict on slaves could not enter into the cities. In short, slavery negatives outweigh the positive and at the end of it all, innocent Black Americans suffered due to the inhumane treatment they faced from their masters. On the other hand, people who owned slaves tried their best to make profit out of the free labor offered.

References

Kelley, Sean. "Blackbirders and Bozales: African-born slaves on the lower Brazos River of Texas in the nineteenth century." Civil War History 54, no. 4 (2008): 406-423.

Shelton, Robert S. "Slavery in a Texas Seaport: The Peculiar Institution in Galveston." Slavery and Abolition 28, no. 2 (2007): 155-168.

 Effects of WW2 on the economy of Paris

Introduction

            The Second World War greatly affected the countries that were involved among which was France. In the periods before, during, and after the war, France experienced a great deal of loss in other sectors such as agriculture and the economy in general as most efforts were directed towards getting the country ready for the war. Since Paris was the country’s most strategic point, it faced a lot of challenges that greatly contributed to the destruction of the economy, businesses and the country’s infrastructure. Although Paris had greatly improved the state of the economy after the First World War, the preparation for World War 2, participation during the war, and repairing the destruction after the war greatly affected the country’s economy, the infrastructure in targeted regions like Paris and greatly affected people’s way of living.

            The main focus for this research is the impact that World War 2 had on the Paris economy. It will therefore seek to answer the questions; why was the economy of Paris affected by the war the most; how was Paris able to recover from the effects of the war; and did Paris rise back in its previous state or were there remnants of the German rule during their time in Paris during the war. The reason for choosing to focus on this topic is to demonstrate the effects that war can have on a country not only during the war but in the periods before and after. The paper will also demonstrate how a nation was able to rise from all the destruction and challenges brought about by World War 2 and become one of the great nations in the world.

Annotated bibliography

1. Occhino, F., Oosterlinck, K., & White, E. (2005). How occupied France financed its own exploitation in World War II. University of California, Berkeley. Retrieved from https://eml.berkeley.edu/~webfac/eichengreen/e211_fa05/white.pdf

In this article, the authors discuss how the French contributed to the economic crisis during the war by helping to Germany’s war efforts through the large sums of money paid to the Nazi’s occupying Paris. The money was collected from the French through imposed wages and price controls and then offered as payment to the Germans. The article has relevance to the research in that it shows how Paris was affected before the war when they set up imposed wages as well as the challenges that were faced during the war.

2. Ehlrich B, (2019) “Paris during and after the French revolution” Encyclopedia Britannica, retrieved from, https://www.britannica.com/place/Paris/Paris-during-and-after-the-French-Revolution-1789-to-mid-19th-century

According to the authors, the damage to the economy in Paris started before the war as people started avoiding conducting business in Paris. During the warm, the situation was made even worse as taxes were levied from the French by the Germans. Despite the various attempts to prevent inflation, the German presence in Paris led to the destruction of the economy even after the war. The information is significant in that it shows the extent in which the German occupation of Paris affected its economy and how Paris was able to repair the damage caused after the war.

3. Alley T and Watkins T, (2018) “The economic history and the economy of France” San Jose State University, retrieved from, http://www.applet-magic.com/france0.htm

The authors discuss the impact that the German presence in France had on the economy in areas like Paris. Having conquered the French, The Germans forced them to pay taxes as well as controlling operations that negatively affected the business in Paris. It is significant to my research as it shows the impact that the Germans had on the way business was conducted during the war and how this negatively affected the economy of Paris.

4. McAuley, J. (2017). How Christian Dior rescued Paris from its postwar misery. The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/how-christian-dior-rescued-paris-from-its-postwar-misery/2017/07/05/858eb506-5ab5-11e7-aa69-3964a7d55207_story.html?utm_term=.67bf54a1236b

The article discusses the efforts that the French put to rebuild France after the war. A good example of this is the case of Christin Dior, a fashion designer who had a significant impact on the reformation of Paris after the war through his fashion designs. Through such endeavors, the Paris economy slowly improved and called attention from the war to other issues such as fashion and beauty. The paper has relevance in that it shows how people came together to engage in business after the war and this greatly contributed to the economic growth in Paris.

5. Kelly, M. (2008). War and culture: The lessons of post-war France. University of South Hampton. Retrieved from https://gerflint.fr/Base/RU-Irlande/kelly.pd

The authors discuss the destruction and loss that was experienced in Paris during the war. The paper has relevance in that it starts by narrating the condition that France was in before the war, the destruction that occurred during the war, and the efforts that were made by the French to restore Paris to the position it was in before the war.

Interpretations and conclusions

The economy in Paris was negatively affected by the Second World War as most of the resources were dedicated towards funding the war. During the war, the Germans took control of Paris and requested that the French pay taxes. The state capitalist system used by the Vichy for example made it difficult for business to do well and thus continued to damage the country’s economy. From the research it is evident that the destruction of the economy is mostly because Paris was a strategic point for France both in terms of the war and in relation to business as business went down during the war. From this I learnt that geographic locations play a crucial role in the success of a country as was the case with Paris.

Abstract

Wayne E, Lee is a famous writer who explored the elements of obedience based on psychological concepts at University of Carolina. Generally, obedience is a type of social influence, which revolves around conforming one’s actions in line with a certain figurative authority’s decisions, which in turn helps bring out Warfare and culture experiences all over the world. It is varies from compliance which is altering traits to match the surrounding or another individual which occur in the absence of force. Wayne carried out an experiment on the struggle between obeying an authority and defying due to personal convictions. This paper will summarize the findings of Wayne Lee and compare his work on warfare and culture, its ties to obedience and components of civil war.

Conditions for Obedience during war

Power dictates whether one will obey or disobey an authoritative figure. According to Lee, during the World War II, genocide perpetrators cited obedience as the underlying reasons for their actions (González, 2016). Soldiers killed many innocent people because of a directive order from another soldier probably a commander or a superior figure in the army.

            The experience commenced in 1961, immediately after the trials of Adolf Hitler. The author developed the experiment to answer questions concerning Holocaust. Either the soldiers adhered to the orders given or they were accomplices. Either way, obedience via a chain of command led to the loss of life (González, 2016). More so, a context in which a person gives a set of directives to his or her juniors, to hurt or even harm another occurs numerous times in human history. Hence, the case of the Nazis is not different, thus Milgram designed an experiment that would reveal whether obedience was the only reason for the deaths.

War is set on the grounds of obedience. One person orders another to terminate an enemy. Other things take place in the precedence of organization. For instance, an authority tells a soldier to kill an enemy, there are certain conditions that dictate or facilitate the orders. This condition perspective opens up various possibilities, which in turn unveils the motive behind the obedience (González, 2016). Underneath the intention, the author found the behavior of the people charged with responsibility of seeing to it that orders materialize.

The objective of the investigation was evaluation of a junior’s behavior after a superior gives an order. The conflict of interest arises between individual conscience and the directive order (González, 2016). Despite of the commands, everyone has a choice to either go against the actions or proceed even though it is against their values and beliefs. In the end, one can either follow a command or disobey especially if the order involves harming another individual.

            The results from the experiment revealed some terrifying facts. In the present world, human are more organized than in the past worlds thus suppressing the killer instincts hidden deep in their nature. Laws and certain regulations put in place by governments all over the world hinder humans from senselessly killing each other. Many people follow orders despite of the content of the commands and do not grasp the consequences arising from enacting such actions.

Obedience in the Workplace and society in general  ( contemporary issue)

Under working conditions, an employer has power over his or her employees. The decision making process relies on top management or authorities in question (González, 2016). The interplay between a worker’s conscience mind and the command rarely occurs in work place environment. Under the working condition, one’s attitude goes a long way in obeying a manager.

No matter how one looks at it, employees fear the boss because he or she is a good person or the consequences if they go against an order. Either way, employment holds people hostage and the only choice is obeying orders. One of the basic functions of socialization has to do with impact others have over the rest. Some employers have the ability to command respect, which later translates into obedience within the workplace. Even if other workers repel a superior, he or she may have the last laugh due to power he or she wields. In summary, power creates a condition that leads to conformity and influence over other people.

 Bosses have the power and social influence over other people and can make anyone bend to their will. The author highlighted the extent to which people could go to obey and order from an authority (González, 2016). Likewise, an office setting presents a person with a rare combination of conformity and obedience. As elaborated earlier, conformity takes place when a person obeys due to pressure placed but obedience occurs through a higher authority. Thus, each one worker conforms due to the internal operations and obeys due to power of authorities over them. In other words, blind obedience is dangerous and people need to look into the content of instructions before they fully commit to carrying out the act. For example, the Nazis killed the Jews as a result of obeying orders from their superiors. It could make sense if the soldiers evaluated the consequences behind their actions before taking the lives of innocent people. Pointing out the need of using personal conscience to weigh the consequences of an order rightfully rescues a dire situation.

 Further analysis

A vital idea that the author forwards to the public is the separation and evaluation of war with other factors other than the violence that takes all of the attention from the main issues that fuel violence and disunity. By isolating violence, the researcher gets the chance to investigate violent practices keenly such as usage of crude weapons (Lee, 2016) .Obviously, civil wars are bloody events, but the approach of separating violence from other factors gives the chance to distinguish and place other factors into context that go unseen due the blind emphasis placed on violence

If everything goes unnoticed in the essay, one thing stands out. Competitors in a civil war want power and total control of the whole territory regardless of whether the majority want it or not. To win the favor of the majority people, the combatants try to generate benefits for people who are willing to collaborate with them (Lee, 2016). In fact, they assure retaliation to people who resist or join other camps. Amid all these situations, opportunities and practical chances give a loophole for the struggle of power and control in the territory. The only resolve is fighting among themselves. This explanation falls in line with the stages of war. First, general violence erupts and affects everyone. After the negotiations between the conflicting parties, the war chooses a side   and violence comes only to people who did not toe the line.

The book entails traits of violence during a civil war amid the conflicting interests. The writer proposes that interests are responsible for differentiating combatants and noncombatants in the civil war. For instance, an innocent individual who does not support any side can lose their life while the perpetrator spares another’s life due to interest (Lee, 2016). The combatants want to remain only with people who support their interests. Thus, at later stages of civil war there is no indiscriminate killing of people in order to protect the interest of combatants. Therefore, it is safe to say that lack of a pattern violence is not productive in a civil war.

In summary, Lee takes a unique perspective while discussing the mechanism that propels violence in a civil war setting. The mechanism pushes aside irrational feelings or anger. Ideology is neither a basis for arguing out civil war carries out a groundbreaking examination in the history of civil wars. As explained above, there is a contrast between the mechanism of violence and the results. Other previous studies focus on studying the civil war based on outcomes but not Lee. The isolation of violence gives chance for the dissection of the topic. In fact, violence depends on many other things and it is a dependent variable. Thus, after everything settles and decided, the outcome is violence. Perpetrators of violence are politicians and civilians with vested interests in a specific location. , immediately after World War I and II, nations started changing their culture perpetrating war. The author developed the experiment to answer questions concerning Holocaust. Either the soldiers adhered to the orders given or they were accomplices. Either way, obedience via a chain of command led to the loss of life.

Reference

González, R. J. (2016). Militarizing culture: Essays on the warfare state. Routledge.

Lee, W. E. (2016). Waging War: Conflict, Culture, and Innovation in World History. Oxford University Press, USA.

Lee, W. E. (Ed.). (2011). Warfare and Culture in World History. NYU Press.

Cohesive Paper on Lysistrata and CHI-RAQ

Introduction

The book Lysistrata was written by Aristophanes during the ancient Greek to depict an outrageous mission set by Lysistrata to bring an end to the Peloponnesian War between the states in the ancient Greek though denying the men conjugal privileges. On the other hand Chi-Raq is a film that aims at achieving peace between the gangs in Chicago that have led to the death of many young children and radicalization of the youths. Spike Lee and Kelvin Willmott, the writers of the story, bases the film on Lysistrata by Aristophanes by employing Lysistrata a character who organizes a meeting with other women to deny their men sexual privileges until peace is achieved.

Similarities and Differences in Themes

In both stories, the authors have described very many themes that appear similar. First is the theme of war wherein both stories, war is the main reason as to why the sexual privileges are denied the men. The theme of war appears in Chi-Raq through the gang-related violence that has claimed the lives of many children and the youths (Mueller n.p).  On the book Lysistrata they are portrayed through the introduction of the Peloponnesian War (Aristophanes 38).

Sex is the other most common theme through the two stories with Lysistrata calling women to use sex as a weapon against men. Aristophanes in the book Lysistrata portrays the theme of sex from the beginning to the end by having the women and wives of both Athens and the Spartan soldiers deny their husbands any sexual privilege until peace is achieved (Aristophanes 90). Consequently, in Chi-Raq the sexual privilege is denied men to ensure there is calm between the gangs in Chicago (Mueller n.p). Although denying men their sexual pleasures are ridiculed at first but achieve the primary goal by attaining peace between the gangs.

The themes employed in both stories appear slightly different but set to achieve peace in the end. The theme of war is found in both stories, but in different dimensions wherein the Chi-Raq, the idea is employed to show hostility between two gangs named Spartans and Trojans (Mueller n.p). On the other hand, Lysistrata engages the theme of war to show the violence between Athens and Sparta both states in the ancient Greek (Aristophanes 55).

The theme of power is found in both stories but from a different angle. In Chi-Raq, there is the struggle for power and control of the gangs in Chicago where each gang wanted to rule the city (Mueller n.p). On the other hand, Aristophanes brings out the theme of power in Lysistrata to show the state that was mighty forgetting that the two states both belonged to Greece (Aristophanes 33).

Similarities and Differences in Characters

Lysistrata is a character found in both Chi-Raq and Lysistrata by Aristophanes. In both stories, Lysistrata is portrayed as a charismatic and brave woman who is willing to break the cycle of violence (Aristophanes 16). In Chi-Raq, Lysistrata is in a relationship with one of the gang leaders named Demetrius and leads seventy-five other women into taking over a military camp for three months to make sure that their points are made clear and peace is brought back into the city.

The journey of Lysistrata in both stories is hard and filled with a lot of violence that they have come in direct contact with. In Chi-Raq, Lysistrata is the girlfriend to one of the gang leaders making her experience a violent life (Mueller n.p). Consequently, the violence rate increases from one time to the other. Lysistrata has experienced her boyfriend being shot at while performing, their house being set on fire while the two are having sex and she has also witnessed an innocent girl being killed as a result of a stray bullet. Consequently, to achieve the peace agenda, Lysistrata goes through a lot of struggle and can step on different people including the Army general and to take over the Amy camp.

In the book Lysistrata by Aristophanes, Lysistrata is a character filled with bitterness as a result of the endless violence that have claimed their husbands time and lives while driving the economy through the ground through the higher budgets required during the war. Also, the fact that she is the least feminine makes her Lysistrata gain the respect of men (Aristophanes 16).

There are many differences between the character of Lysistrata depicted in the book by Aristophanes and the one in the film, Chi-Raq. The first difference is that the one employed by Aristophanes is not married and does not easily flirt with men making her easily respected by men and can make a point( Aristophanes 35). On the other hand, Chi-Raq employs Lysistrata as a character who flirts with men and found attractive by her beauty and charming making her irresistible to men (Mueller n.p).

                                    Works Cited

Aristophanes and Jack Lindsay. Lysistrata. Auckland: The Floating Press, 2012.

Mueller Adell. Chi Raq 2015 Nick Cannon, Teyonah Parris, Wesley Snipes. Published on Feb 27, 2017. Retrieved from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yX8ktuDMWYw

Introduction

Reports of the Mongols attacks frightened Europeans and their leaders. The Mongols enlarged their territory by means of rapid and significant attacks with well-equipped and skillful soldiers. They wiped out areas that resisted their rule as was customary of them. They abandoned some areas and seized food crops and cattle from enemy territories. This kind of warfare spread fear across the world and even among Europeans, who had not yet come face to face with the wrath of the Mongols, fled their territory westward. As some scholars established, the link between the rise of Mongols Empire and the changes in attitude in Europe consequently giving room for the public to question the authority and power of the church was plagues. This paper will argue out that Black Death helped Mongolia empire rise.

 Black Death

The plague or Black Death as it was commonly known created its way into Europe in 1347 and claimed 30% to 60% of the total population. Europe did not recuperate from the effects of the plague until late 1800s. However, the origin of the plague was China and central Asia in 1330s and historians claimed that it caused an estimated 25 million deaths. Mongols were not the original cause for the spread of the plague (Green, 2016, 231).Fleas carried an organism known as Yersinia pestis. Yernis pestis was responsible for the Black Death disease. Hence, rodents infested with fleas spread the plague widely. Of course, Mongols spread the plague both intentionally and unintentionally. For example, in 1347, during Kaffa siege Mongol soldiers took dead bodies infected with the plague into the town. This was the first ever record of biological warfare documented in history. Foreign Traders at the siege went to their homes infected with the plague hence it spread widely. The plague spread quickly across areas the Mongols attacked.

Even though Mongol attack on Europe caused fear and spread illness, at the end of it all, it had some positive outcomes. The first was what historians termed Pax Mongolic, that translate into peace among residents under the Mongol rule. The peace resulted into increased trade between Europe and China. Consequently, there was intercultural interaction between the two regions, expanding trade routines (Green, 2016, 101). This interactions were significant because before the Mongol Kingdom, began its reign of terror, Europeans and Chinese did not acknowledge each other’s presence. One thing led to another and Europeans, Chinese developed ambassadorial connections, and religious assignments manifested over the massive distances.

For instance, Islamic merchants assisted Islamic faith gain popularity in Eastern hemisphere and later spread it further from Asia to West African regions. Worried, Western Europeans and Mongols leaders of China strengthened their diplomatic ties between each other against Muslims in Asia (Green, 2016, 94). On the other hand, Europeans also wanted Mongols to practice Christianity within their communities, the Mongols perceived the spread of Christianity as a danger. All this occurrences affected the authority of the church in Europe as Mongols had a seat at the table every time European leaders discussed vital issues. Simply put, Mongols opened up trade routes, which facilitated the spread of Black Death.

 Factor That Contributed To the Spread of Black Death

            It is vital to note that the Bubonic plague outbreak started in central Asia and spread out to European regions through the trade channels such as the Silk Road. As most historians established, the Bubonic plague, facilitated by rodents, which occupied caravans and ships. For example, the first Bubonic plague incident began in 1347 when Genoese traders set foot on Sicily (Ell, 1989, 121). Apart from trading routines, absence of proper sanitations mechanisms encouraged the spread of the Bubonic plague. Europeans during the middle age era lacked proper sanitation mechanisms and constant running water hence human defecations and other kind of dirt piled up in open places hence rodents thrived in dirt facilitating the spread of the illness. Thirdly, humans lived in crowded towns thus drawing in rodents attracted to human actions. Fourthly, people lacked knowledge and insight on issues surrounding the disease therefore spreading from one place to another was easy. Consequently, the ignorance led to emergence of various myths such as human health sometimes depended on the aligning of the solar system hence disarrangement of the planets led to the spread of various diseases. Another shared belief on the origin of the plague was it came from specific ethnicities. For example the Jewish people and immigrants. Moreover, some claimed that it was a punishment from God due to sinning tirelessly.

 In summary, the Mongol quest to expand and concur new territories led to the spread of the Bubonic plague. After concurring, an area Mongols established trade routes, which made it easier for rodents to move in large numbers to different areas hence spreading the disease. In addition, during war, Mongols intentionally damped dead bodies infested with Black Death with the aim of infecting people resisting their rule. The diplomatic relationships formed between Chinese and Europeans strengthen diplomatic ties hence helping fight the disease. The interaction between the Europeans and Mongols diluted the authority of the church.

References

Ell, Stephen R. "Three days in October of 1630: detailed examination of mortality during an early modern plague epidemic in Venice." Reviews of infectious diseases 11, no. 1 (1989): 128-139.

Green, Monica H. "Editor's Introduction to Pandemic Disease in the Medieval World: Rethinking the Black Death." The Medieval Globe 1, no. 1 (2016): 3.

Operational Iceberg

Introduction

Nearly Seventy-Five years ago, the American forces located in Pacific Ocean Areas formed a joint task force to conduct a campaign aimed at wrestling Okinawa Island from the Japanese forces.  Okinawa Island is very important among the Ryukyu Group of Japanese island. The decision to carry out the invasion indicated that the United States was ready to infiltrate the inner ring of the enemies' defense forces. The ensuing operation Iceberg turned out to be as the American forces and Japanese forces lost thousands of soldiers including many civilians.  The Operational ICEBERG involved the application of operational art and joint thinking by leaders of different services, which culminated in successful landing on Okinawa, and eventual surrender of Japanese forces.

1. Ends Japanese threat to the ICERBERG Operation.

• The Japanese prepared an all-out air, land, and sea attack to repel any amphibious landing
• The kamikaze suicidal attacks presented a major hindrance to the entire operation

The planning and execution of Okinawa campaign – Operation Iceberg – saw the United States enter an advanced stage of carrying out its strategy in the Pacific during the World War II.  The offensive concept as a basic strategy had been established by President Roosevelt and Prime Minister Churchill, including a general timetable to be used in the Pacific War campaign with Japan (Appleman & Center of Military History, 2000). The strategy was established in Cairo during the 1943 Sextant Conference. The decision involved a convergence of two-pronged drives in the area to threaten by the Japanese. The drive along the New Guinea's Northern Coast was spearheaded by Southwest Pacific Area's Commander-in-Chief Douglas MacArthur, who directed the attack towards the Philippines (Appleman & Center of Military History, 2000). At the same time, the operation in Central Pacific towards Japanese' islands outposts was directed by Pacific Ocean Areas' Commander-in-Chief, Admiral Chester W. Nimitz. The objective was to have a convergence of various simultaneous and amphibious attacks on China Coast triangle in 1945's spring, as a preparation for the invasion of Japan (Appleman & Center of Military History, 2000). The decision ensured that the Navy and other elements of the armed forces maintained operations on both fronts as was deemed necessary. The advanced on the two axes resulted in increased pressure against the enemy Japanese defense forces and their naval might, which was the main objective of the strategy employed by the Americans.  

The Objective of the Strategic Decision

The major objective of the Pacific operations was to target Japan's industrial center and Honshu's southern shores between the plains of Tokyo and Shimonoseki. The strategy's aim was to achieve this objective step by step and exploit the extreme vulnerability of the enemy to the blockade of the submarine, and bombardment by air (Appleman & Center of Military History, 2000). In the entire 1944 period, the Navy and Army personnel in the Pacific had been coming with a plan for Formosa invasion in the coming 1945 spring. The Formosa region was perceived as an Operation Causeway by the Americans. The Joint Chiefs of Staff had directed on March 1944 that a rough concept of the invasion be established, in addition to consideration and review of the available troops (Appleman & Center of Military History, 2000). The assignment of commanders for various taskforce was also announced. Hence, a CAUSEWAY study by a joint staff had already been established.

 The plan indicated that an invasion on Formosa was clearly the intention of Admiral W. Nimitz after the establishment of various positions in Southern and Central Philippines by the Southwest Pacific forces. However, after the CAUSEWAY, an operation against the Bonin Islands and Ryukyu's Islands or against enemy forces in the China coast was to be pursued latter (Appleman & Center of Military History, 2000). Either way, the operation would finally result in an assault on the islands. 

                                               Ways

The Varying Strategic Opinions

The leaders of services at various bases had different strategic views on best decision. There was a change to the plan as of 15 September, whereby Gen. Douglas McArthur was directed by the Joint Chiefs to bypass Mindanao and capture Leyte on 20th October rather than 20th December (Zee, 1994). Simultaneously, Admiral Nimitz was directed to circumvent Yap but was to reconsider the Formosa operation the following day on the basis that advancing early into Central Philippines was highly likely to lead to a direct northward advancement through the islands instead of through China Coast and Formosa (Zee, 1994). Also, the early advance presented an opportunity to acquire the needed fleet anchorages. Thus, the Nimitz reviewed the CAUSEWAY's objectives so that establishing air basis would provide a front to support China, bomb Japan, and prevent the home islands from accessing resources from the south (Zee, 1994). He requested the opinion of the Army commanders on the new possibilities.  However, Lt-Gen. Robert C. Richardson in charge of Pacific Ocean Areas insisted that only applicable plan should be made that would make the early achievement of Japan invasion, the main objective, possible.

He was skeptical of Formosa as a basis for advancing on Japan through China coast and opined that it did not provide advantages in line with enormous effort and time involved. The Lieutenant proposed the Marianas-Bonins and Luzon Ryukyus axes a more economical, in agreement with General MacArthur's strategy to capture Leyte then Luzon (Zee, 1994). The Luzon would make it possible to seize positions in Ryukyus from where the American forces would prosecute air operations against Honshu and Kyushu. The Commander General, U.S Army Air Forces, Lt-Gen. Millard F. Harmon, however, referred to his previous recommendation for Formosa and China Coast as effective bases for seizing the Ryukyu Islands, and development of air basis from which Japan could be bombed (Isaac, 2015). He emphasized the CAUSEWAY objective, which included the air bases acquisition, and the notion that the least cost in terms of material and men would be incurred in capturing Ryukyu positions.

Eventually, advancing to Ryukyu-Bonin Island's line after Luzon-Marianas become the preferred option, and the conception of the idea was done within the strategy of blocking and bombarding the enemy forces or any desire to resist. The capture of Okinawa would bring the war to Japan's threshold, disrupt their communication through the islands of Ryukyu, and edge the enemy's communication in the seas to the south (Isaac, 2015). The Okinawa Island was American's line of advance to the Japanese islands and to the coast of China. Aggressive and well-orchestrated campaigns and unexpected engagements in the entire Pacific war drama necessitated the reconsideration of the Sextant plan (Appleman & Center of Military History, 2000). As aforementioned, there was a consistent agreement on Formosa as an important objective among the different proposals. The Joint Chiefs of Staff ordered for preparation for Operation CAUSEWAY, which included an amphibious Formosa assault. It also directed preparation for Luzon recapture if such operations were deemed important before moving on Formosa (Appleman & Center of Military History, 2000). The plan was a reflection of a compromise resolution between the two divided perceptions of Pacific strategy, involving MacArthur's preference for Philippines and insistence by Admiral King for the main effort to be via Central Pacific.

The Okinawa Decision

Despite the directive by JCS in March 1944, the Pacific Strategy had not conclusively been reached making the situation on the ground to remain fluid. However, the Operation Iceberg plan indicated shrewd farsighted thinking, with great attention to flexibility, objective, synchronization and skillful use of combat power dynamics (Pitt & In Liddell, 1966). The opposition by Admiral Raymond Spruance to Formosa base was based on his vision for Japan as an end, and this can explain his insistence for the capture of Okinawa and Iwo Jima. Thus, his idea of strategy involved communication lines and geography, whereby application of exterior and interior lines as the basic principles. The principles shaped his view that capturing the interior communication lines of Marianas would allow advancement of U.S forces to the positions held by the enemy forces. Admiral Spruance preferred Okinawa due to its decisive point and prominent terrain. It would have meant that U.S forces would control the entire East China Sea front (Zee, 1994). Other leaders viewed Okinawa as just an effective base for the assault on Japan. However, the Formosa, which was King's desire, was reaffirmed by the August Staff. The Formosa strategy was also seen as an uneconomical, and thus, Marianas- Bonins and Luzon-Ryukyus strategy was considered (Pitt & In Liddell, 1966). Nevertheless, Nimitz presented a concrete argument that compelled King to do away with Operation CAUSEWAY and agreed to abandon Formosa and recommended Okinawa and Iwo Jima to the Joint Staff.

 Noticeably, the decision that led to Operation ICEBERG was not to reach through joint planning as is currently understood. The decision involved every service coming up with a proposal that focused on capturing Okinawa but with varying reasons. From an operational point of view, Admiral Spruance saw Okinawa as the ground for interdicting Japanese communication lines and as a base for launching any upcoming operations in East China (Zee, 1994). The strategy would help in isolating Japan and avert any costs arising from assaulting Japan. Hence, each leader had a different view of Okinawa as a base of operation, but the flexibility of Joint Chief of Staffs and King indicates planning as a two-way street. The Okinawa selection resulted more-so from each service's self-interest and less from a common and unified strategy, but still, the leaders embraced the operational art and had great vision (Zee, 1994). Thus, the strategy involved consideration of both friendly and enemy capabilities, estimation of personnel and prevailing military to conditions to accomplish the set objectives of the battle.

Means

Operational ICEBERG Planning

Joint Operational Planning Process involves a systematic and analytical procedure comprising of specific steps in examining a mission. It entails developing, analyzing and comparing different courses of actions, choosing the best course of action and coming up with an order (MULLEN, 2006). The goal in the Pacific War was to ensure the surrender of Japan. The various operational commanders appeared to have divergence views on the strategic center of gravity of Japan and proper manner of invasion. Arnold and Lemay seemed to view the Japanese people to be the Center of Gravity, which informed the Empire Plan execution, that in turn lead to the striking of mainland's urban areas leading torn annihilation of 64 cities (Zee, 1994). While Lemay saw the possibility of forcing Japan to surrender before the final invasion, US forces perceived that the destroying Japanese Military would achieve the same. That Spruance believed a line of effort through the East China Sea and blockages of resources were significant indications that he recognized the people's will (Matheny, 2014). However, considering the Japanese materialistic society, it would rightly be concluded that the center of gravity was based on both the military and the people's will. 

Okinawa became the eventual operational objective since it would make it possible to achieve the main strategic goal. Kamikaze became the center of gravity for the operation since it could endanger the amphibious stage, and thus, a lot of effort, time, and resources were directed towards neutralizing this threat. The efforts by Lemay to destroy Japanese aircraft using B-29s were negligible, and this prompted Spruance to order for bombing aircraft factories, aircraft, and even airfields on the Kyushu (Zee, 1994).  A lot of effort was focused on objective area isolation and obtaining dominance in the battle-space. A month before the landing, Okinawa, and Kyushu were struck by B-29s from Marianas and China, while Forward Area Central Pacific Force‘s naval carried out anti-submarine operations, offered logistic support, and defused other enemy bases left behind (Zee, 1994). The Submarine Force Pacific Fleet interdicted any Japanese approaching from Formosa and Japan and offered the needed intelligence. The role of neutralizing the enemy air was majorly assigned to Fast Carrier Force. A week before the invasion, the Fast Carrier Force had isolated Okinawa while supporting the operation with patrols and strikes (Zee, 1994). Meanwhile, the air installations Ryukyu's southwest were defused by British Carrier Force, and other units carried out aerial search, air reconnaissance, and engaged in anti-submarine combat (Zee, 1994). 

The Operational ICEBERG involved three phases:  The capture of Southern Okinawa to allow the establishment of operation base; Le Shima occupation and Northern Okinawa control; capture and establishment of more islands to be used in future. Since Operation ICEBERG needed considerable corporation and coordination of the above services in any logistic and operational challenges, the process of planning was done synchronously. Hence, interoperability among various functions including having a common intelligence center, integration of supporting arms, and every part of logistics. The commanders of the task force and various corps developed plans together to accomplish the different amphibious operations (Appleman & Center of Military History, 2000). Moreover, the joint planning efforts led to significant modifications and decisions during the entire Operation ICEBERG. 

 The campaign also involved operation fires, which consisted of Carrier Task Force and AFF strikes that aimed at containing and neutralizing the Kamikaze effects (Appleman & Center of Military History, 2000).  The fires allowed friendly maneuver, battlefield isolation, and destruction of key facilities and functions of the enemy. The ICEBERG execution was enabled by the allocation of assets, coordination of activities, and de-confliction of operation lines, which culminated in a successful implementation of the developed strategic plan. The success is indicated by the fact that the Okinawa amphibious landing was completed unopposed, while the lethal nature of gunfire support from the navy made Japanese commander of the garrison to reconsider his defensive strategy (Zee, 1994). He decided to engage the American's island.

Risks

The commanders of U.S forces and other allied forces had a common understanding of the kind of threat posed by Japan. The Japanese had expected an attack on Ryukyu Islands, and considered an all-out air, land, and sea attack to repel any amphibious landing by its enemies. The US forces knew that the Japanese’ Kamikaze air force would embark on suicidal attacks that it had employed before during the Leyte Gulf Battle. The suicidal attacks presented the greatest threat to US amphibian lands in the Ryukyus. Moreover, the Okinawa airfields and the many bases possessed by the Japanese at the islands were a major risk to the operation. The bases could also be found in Formosa and on the Chinese front which were strategic areas for the objective of the Campaign.

The Japanese also understood the value of the islands, and their presence placed the US bombers within the range of home islands of the enemy. The adoption of Ketsu-Go policy by the new prime minster, Kantaro Suzuki pictured a mass mobilization of citizens as military personnel to take part in the suicide attacks. The extent the Japanese were willing to go to defend the islands against outside invasion presented a major risk to the entire operation

Conclusion

The operational art and joint thinking application by the services' leaders ensured that the Operation ICEBERG campaign achieved the desired objective of seizing Okinawa. The campaign involved continuous deliberations of the best courses of action, and since the leaders held different views on the best way forward, engagement and coordination ensured all units focused on the main goal. The consideration of varying opinions and ideas enabled the leaders to conduct operations according to what suited their units, but their efforts culminated in common victory.

References

Isaac, E. (2015). Operation ICEBERG: How the Strategic Influenced the Tactics of LTG Simon Bolivar Buckner Jr. at Okinawa.

Appleman, R. E., & Center of Military History, (2000). Okinawa: The last battle. Washington, D.C: Center of Military History, U.S. Army. Pp.1-66. Retrieved from: https://etd.auburn.edu/bitstream/handle/10415/4906/Evan_Isaac_Operation_Iceberg_V2.pdf;sequence=2

Matheny, M. R. (2014). Carrying the War to the Enemy: American Operational Art to 1945 (3^rd Ed). Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 202-250

Zee, R. (1994). Operational Perspectives of the Okinawa Campaign (Operation Iceberg). Naval War Coll Newport RI. Pp.6-21

Pitt, B., & In Liddell, H. B. H. (1966). History of the Second World War. Paulton (Som.: Purnell).pp.2572

 MULLEN, M.G, (26^th December, 2006). JP 5-0, Joint Planning. Retrieved from: https://grugq.github.io/resources/jp5_0.pdf#%5B%7B%22num%22%3A282%2C%22gen%22%3A0%7D%2C%7B%22name%22%3A%22XYZ%22%7D%2C-293%2C804%2C0.75%5D

Historical bases for American Justice System in the Unites States

            The American system came along way. It existed even during the colonial times when American was under the British rule of law. Moreover, the consequences of breaking the law were unfair and brutal (Valverde, & Nikolas, 2017). However, after the 17^th century, William Penn commenced on making amendments and raising awareness on the reforms needed to bring about change in h justice systems.

 In addition, the American Revolution paved the way for the enactment of a constitution that would later provide a guide to the justice system hence assuring Americans of protected freedoms and accessibility to human rights (Valverde, & Nikolas, 2017). Establishment and enactment of the constitution was the beginning of building a solid foundation for the justice system.

Legal bases and administrators for the Justice system In US

In the United States, the federal and government levels come up with laws. Legislative institutions such as the congress and county legislators approve laws known as statutes. After approval of the laws, courts and national states implement the laws (Lynch, 2014). At the federal level, the constitution gives legislators the go ahead to implement the laws.

Based on the constitution, the authority, which the congress lacks, is given to states. Hence, Congress has the power to control issues pertaining trade and justice systems In America.

Vital conflict versus consensus debate Importance

 They both inform on census. Whereas Consensus focuses on features of various social categories, the conflict concepts give underlying reasons for variance in power among different groups (Lynch, 2014). More so, the two theories gives combine various elements hence giving out a wider scope and perspective on issues pertaining human activities and its overall effect on the society.

Reference

Valverde, M., & Nikolas, R. (2017). Governed by law? In Foucault and Law (pp. 179-190). Routledge.

Lynch, G. E. (2014). Our administrative system of criminal justice. Fordham L. Rev., 83, 1673.

How does the condition of stability in China today compare with that of the 19th century (1800s)?

            Considering this scenario, it is evident that the conflict that China was experiencing had ultimately expanded with the western counties. The reason for that is because the western countries particularly England had already established imperial powers within this state (Steven, 2011). Basically, by the end of the 18^th century England had had the intention of opening a trade with the Republic of China.

            Despite that, the denial of the terms established by the two states is what resulted to the evolution of several wars. It is this economic war which resulted to unequal agreements which by the end of the century made China to be carved up like a melon.

How does the condition of stability in China today compare with that of the 20th century (1900s)?

            Comparing the stability of China in the 20^th century with regard to its condition in the 19^th century, it is clear that the Chinese innovation is ultimately linked with technological advancements. This is perceived to be one of the main advantaged it has with its rivals. The country has the potential of producing appropriate and cheap products for the majority of emerging global markets (Steven, 2011).

What is Pinker’s thesis about the change in violence over time?

            According to Pinker’s thesis, the changes in the civil wars indicate that the internal crisis which was occurring in China during that time, especially famines, rebellions, and explosive population growth was not something new. Despite that, the timing and the degree of such changes was paramount to the coming of the foreign encroachments.

To what does Pinker attribute the decline in civil wars and civil unrest?

            According to Pinker, the decrease in civil unrest was a result of the decline in feminism of the society. Another idea that he considers is the general rise of the state of the nation which is coupled with the spread of empathy and reason of enlightenment (Steven, 2011). It is this reasoning which assists in structuring the norms of the modern society.

                                                            Reference

Steven, P. 2011. Violence Vanquished: The Wall Street Journal. Retried from: https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424053111904106704576583203589408180

Religion Was A Significant Factor In The Development Of Early World Civilization

Introduction

The characteristics constituting a civilization and its social structure have a solid foundation on religion. The social fabric and cultural traditions of ancient civilizations have deep roots entrenched in religious systems and beliefs. Major religious events and practices create a value system which in turn influence a nation’s authority, Power, formulation of policies and even labor market. Each civilization has an aspect of social arrangement based on jobs, riches, or hierarchy. Furthermore, religious plays a crucial role in civilizations as it gives peoples something to hold on to and rally against an idea. This essay will discuss the political, social, and economic roles religion exerts on people giving rise to civilization and organization in the world. In addition, the essay will carry out an in-depth search on religious practices and their impact on communities.

Correlation Between Religion And Cultural Practices

After the sunset years of cold war, society’s alterations redefined national identities and the underlying meaning of the identities. Global politics began rearranging itself around matters religion and cultural lines (Grayson 2013. 22-26). For instance, upside down flags indicated a transition of beliefs and values governing a nation’s people and institutions. In the post-cold war, symbols associated with cultural recognition were crosses, prayers, and priests. Priests would involve themselves in patching up a country’s weaknesses. In other words, exposing culture brings along religious beliefs on board. Hence, one cannot address culture without religion emerging from the same talk. In end, religion influences culture through beliefs and practices in order to foster integration, and resolving conflicts in the society. In summary, through culture religion gained the momentum to bring peace and order, insight on social interactions and predict future politics.

Reasons Religion Played An Essential Role in Early civilizations

During the course of human’s history of civilization, religion had an impeccable influence and role in the formation of major societies. A number of reasons explain the underlying motive of religion in early civilization (Grayson 2013. 26-28). However, the most arguable reason may be faith in something or a divine authority gives human beings hope and a focused purpose to organize themselves in line with moral upright values and instills disciple consequently leading to civilized communities. This reason evidenced among persecuted individuals who have a steadfast belief, which then enables them to persevere during hardships and the persecutions. For example Christians, Jews and some sections of the Islam communities portraying perseverance trait.

Judaism

The Bible suggests that Abraham made an agreement with God in the first book, Genesis. From Abraham, the Jewish people came into being. The Jewish account for around 14milion people in the entire world. In histories, the Jewish people experienced persecution from all corners of the world due to their faith. The Babylonians destroyed the Jewish Temple situated in Jerusalem in 586BC (Herzog 2011, 67). More so, the Nazis killed and isolated them in camps during 20^th century but these persecutions did not stop their spirit to move on and continue with their faith. In fact, the Jewish communities became more cohesive and solidified over the years with an aim of reconstructing the nation of Israel. In 1948, Israel gains its respect as a sovereign nation. However, the trials and tribulations of the Jews did not come to a stop after establishing Israel state. The Jewish state has many adversaries, conflict, and sometimes, frustrated political situations. In summary, the Jewish people are a good example of nation birthed from religious beliefs and traditions passed from one generation to another.

Christianity

Christians is the largest religions in the world. They outnumber members of other religions all over the world. Over an estimated one third of the world is Muslim. Early Christians experiences persecutions under the Roman rule. Constantine came into power in 312 and put an end to Christian persecutions. Mores so, he gave out the Edict of Milan which permitted integration of Christians into the Roman communities. St Paul led the early church and later, popes took the role of leadership played by Paul until reformation took place in Europe, during the 16^th century (Herzog 2011, 121). There was a split in the church due to corruption and abuse of power, hence a split occurred, and some members formed the protestant group separate from the main Catholic Church. Martin Luther led the protestant group out of the Catholic Church. In the end, other early civilizations arose from the protestant group spreading the Christian beliefs everywhere to other nations. In modern day society, the traditions and values systems of Christians constitute the education and even the legal system. For example, Easter is a holiday in most Christian nations.

Islam

This religion occurred in the 7^th century. Prophet Muhammad is the central figure in Islam. The roots of Islam evidenced in early Arabian worlds via architecture and dressing of long robes (Spielvogel 2014, 78). The Muslim religion has an estimated 2.2 million members all over the globe. Muhammad preached to thousands of people during the religion’s early days in 613AD. The wealthy Arabian elite hated Muhammad because Muhammad empathize with the poor people a within the Arabian society. Moreover, he condemned idolatry and immorality within the Arabian world. In the ends, his teachings spread everywhere in the Arab world and early civilizations arose from the teachings of the prophet and other principles aligned to Muslim religion and culture. Countries such as Iran have Sharia laws governing the country’s daily activities.

Significance Of Religion In Establishing Early Civilizations

The role of religion in shaping culture and traditions present in early civilizations cannot go unnoticed. If anything is the significance objective of religion. For whatever reasons, humans always felt the necessity to hinge their purpose in life on something supreme and unexplainable. Therefore, through hope, religion formed societies and was a rock upon which nations came into being. In most early civilizations, there was an aspect of state-run religion driving the whole nation into submission and obedience. In some communities, kingship or aristocratic leadership facilitated religion influence over its people (Spielvogel 2014, 118). For example, kings claimed that God himself appointed them into the position of power they occupied, to command respect and deal with opposition effectively. Hence, in one way or another religion was able to bring about peace and political stability. Another example are the pharaohs of Egypt, they were divine even though some of them failed in executing their leadership role. In fact, the kings did nothing to earn their divinity. In other words, religion once against strengthened the image of leadership, giving elites power over their servants consequently facilitating construction of empires and various forms of government. If a person in power can channel religion power through the political systems, they are unstoppable.

It is obvious that religion gathers more than simple divinity as explained above. There is the element of life after death in each religion (Rist 2014, 138). Although it is true that gods or deities affect the lives of ordinary individuals in the society, the promise of life after death has a pendulum effect on people and can channel their energy into useful tasks resulting to civilization. For example, religious leaders have immense power in the society due to their ability to interpret religious teachings. Concentration of power many a times resulted to obedience and emergence of leadership skills that built ancient civilizations on the back of people who were hostage to the fear of death. On the other hand, the concepts of life after death in religion usually creates a series of cultural values and systems that dictate lifestyle, hopes and even activities people engage in an the manner in which they handle themselves. Then, the cultural morals pass from generation to generation. For further illustration, the Egyptians religion lasted for more than 100years and maintained states, years after years.

Construction of Political, Social And economic Systems

 Although religion vary from one place to another, the grip religion had on the early civilizations still appear in today’s world. People who claim that religion did not play a major part in the establishment of ancient civilizations rely on agriculture, trade, and social stratifications to forward their argument (Lipner 2012, 105). However, when ancient political and social systems are under evaluation, religion is a central factor that helps the wheels of human society turn. For example, ancient civilizations relied on religion to hold other aspects of civilization together via belies and behavior. As more people shared a common belief and values, then it was easier to form a way of life and establish a set of tradition to govern their lives and practices. More so, people who were strangers would unite as long as they shared common religious perspectives leading to common social structure, political systems, and conceptualization of ethics and even judicial systems.

It is common to witness the combination of politics and religion. Some scholars may argue that the two are associated together and inseparable (Lipner 2012, 97). In ancient societies, religious leaders would sometimes enter into the political systems and influence the entire society. In other contexts, religious leader would only play religious roles and not double as political leaders. Whatever the case, religion always supported political systems of ancient civilizations. The same applied today.

Both political and religious systems solidify laws and through them generate social systems within which people dwell in obedience to the laws and other necessary stipulations. Political leaders have the ability to make crucial decisions in line with the moral obligations of the religious systems (Lipner 2012, 105). Simply put religion makes up the fabric of ancient civilizations. Furthermore, a keen look into the history proves that Kingship had a divine component to it. The sacredness linked to kings legitimized power of a leader. The ideal of legitimizing power via religion was a universal concept widely utilized by various civilizations.

In summary, religion played a huge part in setting up beliefs, values, and principles, which in turn influenced behaviors of people. The connection between religion and culture is an ingredient for the establishment of many ancient civilizations. Religions influences practices and sets the pace for implementation of laws that later govern civilizations.

References

Grayson, James H. Korea-A religious history. Routledge, 2013.

Herzog, Jonathan P. The spiritual-industrial complex: America's religious battle against communism in the early Cold War. Oxford University Press, 2011.

Lipner, Julius. Hindus: Their religious beliefs and practices. Routledge, 2012.

Rist, Gilbert. The history of development: From western origins to global faith. Zed Books Ltd., 2014.

Spielvogel, Jackson J. Western civilization. Cengage Learning, 2014.