Analyse a Defining Moment in Intelligence History from 1901 to Now?

            Cracking the Enigma Code (WW2)

World War II is categorized as history’s leading and most influential armed battle of all times. The war served as the breeding ground for the contemporary structure in regard to intelligence and security as well as for the after war stability of supremacy that created the basis that supported the Cold War (Lycett, 2011 1). In this context, the defining specifics of the war is that the use of armaments, a real fight, and battle materials was not solemnly responsible for captivating the war. To the highest degree, the win was artificially designed by the exertions of the American and British intellect amenities, who ultimately outweighed the enemies’ exertions (Lycett, 2011 1). Underlying the weapons and aircraft war was the battle of descriptions, confrontations, thoughts, and impersonations. These were the intangible civilization objects that generated massive tangle influence for the individuals of Europe, Asia and distinctive parts in the global context (Leong-Kok 34).

Scope and Significances of the War

The Second World War pocked some principal allied states the most known based on their authority being America, UK, China and the Soviet Union in contradiction of the Axis states (Leong-Kok 34). After the war began most of the Axis signatories were either willing or reluctant to put their efforts with the Allied states based on their influence but Germany alongside Japan retained their principal authorities in the former treaty. In 1945 Japan submitted to America (Leong-Kok 36). The war becomes the major source of death for million persons across the regions. It served as the crisis amid the multi glacial 19th and 20th centuries which founded the ground for the occurrence of the Cold War (Leong-Kok 34). This ended with the dominance military European powers and also shepherded in the period where Europe principally relied on America’s assistance to generate its recovery in the quest of circumventing another War thus becoming an influential economic influence.

What Happened and the Impact on WW2

After the Versailles treaty that occurred in 1919, the security system in German established the interest to enhance its communication systems thus identifying the capability of gesticulating machines that were initially designed for the trading sector (Budiansky, 2008 27). The intellectual machine that was created by Alan Turing in the early stages of the Second World War, was essential in cracking Germany’s messaging that was programmed by the Enigma device. Enigma Device had the capability of rapidly hurtling the general rate in which the diverted information was being decided thus permitting allied powers to respond consequently within few hours rather than waiting for their attacks (Budiansky, 2008 27).

After the development and assessment of Enigma machine about 210 bombe devices were created that operated everywhere (Hinsley & Stripp, 2001 14). These devices were located at distinct areas across the United Kingdom in the quest of lowering bombing that would, in turn, destroy the expensive and dynamic machines. Based on the shortage of the machines, code machines were transformed into operative enigma devices. The captured messages were then decoded into the English language prior to being passed on to the intelligence systems. According to Hinsley & Stripp (2001 15) at the utmost, the machines were able to capture more than three thousand messaging on daily basis and by the end of the battle, about 2.5 million memos had been acquired most of which offered the Allies with essential data in regard to Germany’s strategy and motives. The acquired understanding played a significant role in regard to major wars victory which shortened the battling period.

Primary Intelligence Factors That Contributed to the Outcome

The Allies were suffering from communication issues given that German had invested much on its technological communication that advanced both their strategies as well as invasions (Mardia and Cooper, 2016 81). Given that German was mainly utilizing coded information the Allies were in need of knowing as well as sharing the messages with the defence systems. Germany as the enemy was utilizing deceptive measures which included the use of encrypted and coded communications network. They believed that Enigma would never be cracked by the Allies and so they became reliant on it on all its communications and attacks. The Allies forced on dishonesty and secrete as most of their moves were strategically drawn (Mardia and Cooper, 2016 81). German miscalculated Enigma’s potential as they believed that it would not be cracked and therefore relied on it in making all its communication. After the strategic attacks, German’s economy was destroyed and exposed to susceptibilities given that the battle was financially and materially demanding.

Friendliness of the decision makers both from the United States and Britain helped in settling for similar grounds that contributed to their success (Leong-Kok 38). The Allies were incorporated of influential nations in reference to power and resources which acted as an advantage. On the other hand, German was in need of finances as well as materials which turned to be their primary priorities in order to conquer. Communication issues were the major influences of the event were both parties focused on enhancing their communication strategies in terms of knowledge. The Allies were driven by their desire to sustain their socio-economic and political power over their enemies (Mardia and Cooper, 2016 84). Given that they possessed more resources fuelled their intervention that did not only enhance their response tactics but also weakened Germany’s defence.

Consequences and Impact

After WW1 the Germany’s consistently focused on advancing their technology until that point that it grew to be Nazi’s main channel of encrypting communications throughout the WW2 (Matson, 2014 898). The technology was modified consistently throughout the battling period which made it difficult to break the coding. Without Enigma’s capabilities, it is obvious that the Allies would have unrelentingly faced severe drawbacks in contradiction of the German’s military dominance in coding technology (Weiss, 2014 10). Despite the fact that it is not possible to quantify the exact implications of the machines contributions it is estimated that the war would have continued for a minimum of two more years and approximately two million individuals would have been killed (MCGRAYNE, 2011 6). The strategic attacks that Allies utilized inflicted severe damages on Germany’s aircraft industries which created a susceptible economy (Matson, 2014 898). The innovative intelligence turned to be the foundation of the contemporary computing and battling techniques.

Cracking the Enigma Code during the Second World War is a defining period in the intelligence history based on its contributions. The event was crucial because it did not only contribute to the sharing of important knowledge but was also responsible for equipping the soldiers which contributed the Germany’s forces downfall (O'HAVER, 2012 216). The cracking of the messaging codes was an innovation which saved millions of lives. It is, therefore, important to note that the war would not have been won by the Allies without the intervention of the innovation. Code cracking was predominantly imperative to the success of the Allies in the Atlantic Battle where German’s U-boats positioned obstruction to Allied sailing forces in the exertions of decreasing the supply sources to the United Kingdom (O'Sullivan, 2015 193). In this context, without the capability to break the codes that helped to determine the actual site of the obstruction boats. The Allies would have eventually missed success in the Atlantic Battle as well as the war. Cracking the Enigma codes is a defining moment because, it established artificial intelligence an event that glimmered technological revolution that resulted in conquest (Short and Dagan, 2013 8). The conquest in regard to coding is accounted to be the utmost cogent intelligence attempt that described the potential for intelligence knowledge. It is accurate to state that close to all the afterward war development paid reference to the cracking development as their basis of conquering against the enemies strategies.

Conclusion

The long run invention that was applied during WW2 resulting to intimidation being more secure given that it offered more knowledge for the utilization of techniques that led to the destruction of the Germany’s defences. The devastating effects on German lowered its capability to overshadow the Soviet Union. Some of the major forces that led to the success of the Allies on cracking the codes was their economic deployment and equipment. In addition, the nations were driven by their desire to sustain their political and social influence and this triggered their preparedness to dedicate their resources to the invention. Cracking Enigma’s code became an important event during the WW2 because it offered strategic knowledge and capabilities that did not only spare millions of lives but also ended the battle sooner.

References

Budiansky, S. (2008). 'The Code Breaker Who Exposed a Secret German Language', World War II, 23, 4, p. 27. Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost.

Hinsley, F. H., & Stripp, A. (2001). Codebreakers: The inside story of Bletchley Park. Oxford [u.a.: Oxford Univ. Press.

Leong Kok Wey, A. 2017. 'Special Operations by Air Power: Strategic lessons from World War II', Air Power History, 64, 1, pp. 33-40.

Mardia, K.V. and Cooper, S.B. (2016). Alan Turing and Enigmatic Statistics. 78-89.

Matson, RW. 2014, 'Allied Master Strategists: The Combined Chiefs of Staff in World War II', Historian, 76, 4, pp. 898-899, Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost.

MCGRAYNE, S. B. (2011). The theory that would not die: how Bayes' rule cracked the enigma code, hunted down Russian submarines, & emerged triumphant from two centuries of controversy. New Haven [Conn.], Yale University Press. http://public.eblib.com/choice/publicfullrecord.aspx?p=3420687.

O'HAVER, R. 2012. 'The Theory That Would Not Die: How Bayes' Rule Cracked the Enigma Code, Hunted Down Russian Submarines, and Emerged Triumphant from Two Centuries of Controversy', Journal of Information Systems, vol. 26, no. 2, pp. 215-217. Available from: 10.2308/isys-10307.

O'Sullivan, D. 2015. The Decline of the Spy. Intelligence, Counterintelligence and Signals Intelligence during the Second World War. Groniek, 44(193).

Short, K. and Dagan, A. 2013. An Examination of the Components and Mathematics of the Enigma Electromechanical Rotor Ciphers.

Weiss, TR .2014. 'World War II Code breaking Center Is Reborn after Being in Disrepair', Eweek, p. 10, Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost.

Lycett, A. 2011. Breaking Germany’s Enigma Code. Pp. 1-1. Retrieved from http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/wwtwo/enigma_01.shtml

 Chinatown

Roman Polanski’s “Chinatown” is not only a classic neo-noir movie, but it is also a grand cinematographic work of many layers, plot twists and character exploration. Although it is structured similarly to many noir movies, with a lonely male detective protagonist, femme fatale who turns out to be a victim, and a dark atmosphere of endless corruption, lies, and victory of power over justice, a great combination of genius screenplay, direction, and acting has brought it out of the genre’s lock and raised it to the status of a classic 20th century American tragedy. The best way to reveal the unique magic of Chinatown is to take a look at the details and the careful flow of the scenario that unravels the tragic battle between Jake Gittes’ strive for just and the world’s cruel nature.

 The paper will consequently discuss the themes of the paper, the motif and the symbol evident in the movie, in order to give the reader an inner understanding of the movie. 

The following are the themes evident in the movie:

Dishonesty of those in Power

In the movie, it is clearly evident that an honest, dependable leader can never exist, and this is only but a myth. Those in power are not what they actually seem to be, since their main agenda is usually to fulfill their needs, through hurting and harming their subjects. For instance, Cross, who is not entirely in power, has used money as a means of taking the advantage of those who are not as rich as he is (Polansky, n.p). Cross runs most parts of the city and its outskirts, because he has used money to buy the control of the city, thus making it easier for him to use people in order to fulfill how own personal gains. Money has allowed Cross to be able to use the district attorney as a puppet, whereby the district attorney follows his rules, of telling the police to ignore any form of crime that he commits.

Russ Yelburton, who is an extremely respected man, goes ahead to assassinate his boss, in order to enrich himself, thus forgetting about the general public. Lieutenant Escobar, who was a previous colleague of Jake, and who is highly respected by Jake, allows injustice to occur, without following the dictates of the law (Polansky, n.p). Those in power are consequently driven by the greed of making a lot of money, through corruption, thus forgetting about the duties which they are supposed to undertake.

     Corruption of the American Future

One of the common elements of the American future is the notion that the common people easily move into unclaimed wasteland thus changing it into productive land. Irrigation and water allowed the American west to shine, thus becoming rich and flourishing area as it currently is (Polansky, n.p). Due to the inventiveness of Mulwray, he was able to change the face of Los Angeles through the use of water, thus changing the area from a desert to a productive area, a move which Cross terms as a genius move. However, Cross uses this approach as a means of assassinating whoever goes against his beliefs. In addition, Yelburton is also compelled to go against the public and his role model, in order to gain a total control of the water.

The authority of America, comes with a lot of challenges, since one promises to support the common people, with the use of the available resources (Polansky, n.p). However, this changes after entry into power, since leaders become greedy, hence they are only concerned with their personal gains, hence forgetting about the needs of the common person. Cross becomes the killer of the American dream, through robbing off the struggling farmers, the most valuable resource, hence forcing them into bankruptcy. In other words, Chinatown, characterizes the American dream, as a real dream, since it is taken away by those in power through corruption.          

The following is the Motif Evident in the Movie:

Ignorance

In Chinatown, most people are ignorant of the corruption which surrounds them, a factor which affects their daily lives (Polansky, n.p). All through the movie, Jake is totally unable of providing evidence and coming up with clear reasons for his actions, in the cases which surround him. In addition, Ida Sessions confesses her ignorance, in the crime that she participated in, and she does not feel guilty of her actions. Similarly, Jake ignorantly tells Evelyn to allow the police handle the matter, when the proper way of handling the matter is through assassinating Evelyn.  

The following is Symbol Evident in the Movie

Chinatown

The name Chinatown, symbolizes a place where clandestine organizations rule, the law has no power, and good intentions are surpassed by bad actions, thus symbolizing the actual nature of different cities in the world (Polansky, n.p). Corruption has become a very common thing, whereby most people have decided to live with it, even determined leaders such as Lieutenant Escobar, and cannot fight it. Principled leadership is non-existent, and trusted and respected leaders such as Yelburton are more than determined to go against the wishes of the public, in order to fulfill their own needs.          

References

Polansky, Roman, director. "Chinatown." Paramount Pictures, 1974.

Decolonisation through the Journey of Reflection.

Description

Prior to commencing this subject, I assumed the Aboriginals & Strait Torres Islander people were different from other people, in the sense that they had different health and societal issues. I strongly believed that their cultural practices limited them from doing things in a similar way as other people (Brownyn, 2013). In addition, I also believed that they may have cultural dictates which limited them from taking education seriously, and they may also have a diet which may affect their health, hence reducing their life expectancy and affecting their levels of understanding as compared to people from other areas. Moreover, I also thought their bodies might not have adapted to their current location, a move which made them experience numerous health issues, which also affected their well-being (Karen & Booran, 2009). 

I believed that the Aboriginals were not people who valued healthcare and treatment since they fully depended upon their own means of treatment way back before the invasion (Karen & Booran, 2009). This made me not to take them seriously when it came to medication, simply because these are people who are not concerned with medical support because they have their own ways of treating themselves. The perception that I had towards the Aboriginals was somehow bias, due to the past history which I had heard about the Aboriginals and their experiences with nurses. Similarly, also believed that they sought medical support, only if their ways of treatment failed (Brownyn, 2013).   

This perception really affected my decision making particularly when interacting with the Aboriginals and Strait Torres Islander people, since the questions I asked them were based on assumptions. I did not, therefore, get the required information from them, as the factors I assumed did not seem to be what affected them (Brownyn, 2013). This made it hard for me to be able to gain an understanding of why these people led that type of life. Moreover, I was also limited to the type of questions which I was supposed to ask because whatever I thought was right, was actually wrong, a move which made me receive answers which I did not think of. These people seemed to be living a similar life as compared to that of people from other places, and they also had similar beliefs, cultural dictates which resembled that of other people in other areas (Karen & Booran, 2009).

Feelings

This subject has really helped in building me up, thus understanding how to deal with issues related to the Aboriginals (Gawaian, Bronwyn, 2016). I have been able to learn a lot from this subject, and this includes ways through which one can be able to conduct a research regarding a particular family or group of people, hence realizing the factors which made the group develop a certain way of life (Brownyn, 2013). In addition, I have also understood the factors which affect the well-being of people, and the factors which might make them perceive things in a different way as opposed to other (Odette, 2014).

In this subject, first and foremost I learned about the attitudes of parents and family in general (Karen & Booran, 2009). This is a factor which affects the general outlook of the family, since parents are the determiners of which type of life their children lead, thus making them develop certain behaviors which they will also transfer to their children when they grow old. In the issue of the Aboriginals & Strait Torres Islanders people, they lives were majorly affected by the type of teachings which they received from their parents while they were young (Helen & Colin, 2016). If their parents were tortured by people of a certain race, they passed the information to their children, making them understand that a certain group of people are not good, and they should be avoided. This led to the creation of beliefs, whereby parents pass their beliefs to children, who grow up knowing that in order for them to succeed in life, they may not need education (Brownyn, 2013). A factor which makes most Aboriginals and Strait Torres Islanders not to take education seriously.  

The subject enabled me to understand the significance of understanding the culture of the affecting persons (Odette, 2014). Most nurses tend to assume things, otherwise offer treatment to their patients, without having an understanding of the culture of the affected patients. In this case, understanding the culture of the Aboriginals not only opened my eyes, but it also allowed me to know the factors which made most Aboriginals not to seek medical advice from hospitals, and the types of cultural beliefs which they have regarding nurses and medical practitioners (Brownyn, 2013). Moreover, understanding whether the patient uses traditional medicine is also significant, as it helps in coming up with proper ways and techniques of treating the patient (Gawaian, Bronwyn, 2016).   

Evaluation

As a nurse, one needs to evaluate and understand the type of life which certain groups of people lead, in order to administer the treatment in a proper way (Odette, 2014). For instance, when dealing with Aboriginals, one needs to conduct a research on the type of life which they led in the past, whether they valued medical treatment, beliefs and whether use traditional treatment (Karen & Booran, 2009). This consequently enables a nurse to change his or her perception towards certain groups of people. Failure to evaluate the type of life which a certain group of people led makes a nurse to treat a patient based on the perception that he or she has towards that group of people. This factor has seen most nurses mistreating the Aboriginals, a move which makes them not to seek medical support (Gawaian, Bronwyn, 2016).

Understanding the beliefs of a group of people allows the nurses to offer the required medical care. This allows us as the nurses, to be able to offer the best medical care, according to the legal requirements of legislation (Helen & Colin, 2016). It is required by the law for a nurse to fully understand the cultural awareness, cultural sensitivity, and cultural safety. Understanding these three forms of the culture allows the nurse to be able to treat all patients equally, regardless of their race or otherwise the public perception concerning them (Brownyn, 2013).

Analysis       

After understanding all the aspects of the society, one needs to analyze the way the medication should be administered (Brownyn, 2013). This may consequently require a nurse to understand the reasoning and political views of the patient, how they end up making decisions and the resources they use for medical purposes. This, therefore, allows one to be able to administer medication which might impact the patients positively, hence allowing them to benefit from the medication (Gawaian, Bronwyn, 2016).

This subject has consequently allowed me to improve my decision-making capabilities since I have been able to understand the new approaches of administering health services (Karen & Booran, 2009). In addition, I have also been able to understand how to deal with own perceptions when it comes to medication (Helen & Colin, 2016). Previously, I could not administer medication without putting the perceptions which I had towards certain groups of people. I can now comfortably conduct medical research, thus administering the proper medication and through following legal medical laws, thus allowing the patient to get well (Odette, 2014).

Conclusion and Action Plan

This subject has been of positive impact not only to me but also to another nurse, who will be able to apply proper medical techniques when treating patients. In my case, this subject will enable me to offer medical support to patients, regardless of their race or class. When it comes to the Aboriginals, I will be able to offer medical support to them, without looking at their weaknesses, perception of medical care, and their past way of life. I will be able to offer medical support to them without having to look at the challenges which they have passed through in the past. This will consequently see me allowing the Aboriginals to seek medical support without having the fear of being discriminated by medical doctors or others the nurses. In order to achieve this, I will consequently need to plan on how to execute the different task as a nurse. In my action plan, I will have a section whereby I will encourage the Aboriginals to seek medical support. Secondly, I will also encourage other nurses to follow the rules and regulation of conducting medical support in accordance with the registered nurse's standards, thus being able to see most people being able to receive medical support without being discriminated.

Reference

Gawaian, B. A, Bronwyn C, (2016). Race Ethnicity and Education: The Legacy of Racism and Indigenous within Education: Routledge.

Roianne W, Kim, U & Kim F. (2010). Increased numbers of Australian Indigenous Nurses would make a Significant Contribution to ‘Closing the Gap' in Indigenous Health: What is getting in the way? Contemporary Nurse: Routledge.

Helen, k. & Colin, M. (2016). Chapter 3: Primary Health Care: Oxford University Press.

Odette, B. (2014). The Cultural Safety Journey: An Australian Nursing Context: Vic Cambridge University Press.     

Larissa, B. (2001). Genocide the Distance between Law and Life

Brownyn F. (2013). ‘We don't leave our identities at the City Limits': Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander People Living in Urban Localities: Queensland University of Technology. 

Kagawa-Singer, M., & Backhall, L. (2001). Negotiating cross-cultural issues at end of life. Journal of American Medical Association, 286(3001), 2993-.

National Competency Standards for the Registered Nurse: Nursing and Midwifery Board of Australia.

Keleher, H. and MacDougall, C. (eds) 2016, Understanding health, 4th ed., Oxford University Press, South Melbourne, Vic.

Anne, M N, Lynne, A, S. & Don G (2014). Confronting the Cultural challenge of the

The whiteness of Nursing: Aboriginal Registered Nurses' Contemporary Nurse. 

                 Helen, K. (2001). WHY PRIMARY HEALTH CARE OFFERS A MORE COMPREHENSIVE

APPROACH FOR TACKLING HEALTH INEQUITIES THAN PRIMARY CARE

Karen, M. & Booran, M. (2009). Ways of knowing, being and doing: A theoretical

Framework and methods for indigenous and indigenous research: Journal of Australian Studies.

History

Section 1

1. The government organization which aided the enslaved African Americans was known as the Freedmen’s Bureau. The new tenancy system which allowed the freedmen to work in the fields and get a share of the crop in return was known as the sharecropping (Bucy, 103).

2.By the year 1875, the National Grange had a membership of 800,000.The 1886 court case which  supported the regulation of railroad rates and reversed the Munn v. Illinois was known  as the Wabash case (McGeehan & Morris, 213). 

3. The law which was created to prohibit the immigration of Chinese laborers to U.S was known as the Chinese Exclusion Act. By 1880, children aged 10 to 14 years in the labor force were 18% (Soennichsen, 67).

4. The Silverites wanted the remonetization of silver at the ratio of 16 to 1. The L. Frank Baum’s 1900 literature which was an allegory about free silver was ‘The Wonderful Wizard of Oz’ (Whaples, 524).

5. The name given to the communities who were dependant of trolleys was streetcar suburb communities. The magazine which used the word ‘skyline’ was the ‘New York’ Archives (Warner, 460).

Section 2

2. Division during reconstruction was caused by three issues.The first issue was presidential reconstruction. Presidents Lincoln and Andrew Johnson had the idea of developing emancipation and reuniting the country (Geipel, 41).The second division was the congressional reconstruction which was based on developing civil and voting rights. The third division was redemption which was based on ending reconstruction since they had won the Southern State. Reconstruction was associated with both beneficial and harmful consequences. The first beneficial consequences were that by 1870s, former slaves had gained the right to vote and right for public education (Geipel, 48). The second benefit is that southern states gained economic and social development in terms of increase in capital investment, manufacturing, new factories and employment. However, some challenges were encountered since Southerners lost their loved ones, reconstruction of cities and homes. Second, there was violence which was established by Ku Klux Klan (KKK) with an aim of attacking the African Americans.

3. According to Turner, frontiers were experienced and the experience assisted them in shaping the American character and institution. In specific, frontiers were individualist and optimist, and the traits helped in establishing westward expansion (Fitzpatrick, 116). Through experience, they were adapted to the new society where they eliminated Old World institutions and developed American institutions. They also created Americanization, mixed race and led to a rebirth. The new society was characterized by national identity and new cultures (Fitzpatrick, 116). They were individualistic and this means that they focused on nationalism and democracy and to achieve this, they believed that American society should have a democratic self-rule. The first policy which Turner reacted on was the Indian Removal Act. Turner argued that Indians gained civilization as well as independent citizenship. Thus, Indians entered a new era and they should live with peace and unity. The second policy is termination policy which denied Indians social services like education. Turner argued that Indians developed character and values and thus they should be allowed to access their property (Fitzpatrick, 116).

4. Example of modernization in industry includes new processes of manufacturing, transportation and communication. There were technological innovation such as automated flour mills, horse power and more. Transportation was improved such as introduction of railways. Americans believed that the industrial revolution was a beneficial period as it brought economic growth (Perloff & Wingo, 67). However, industrial modernization led to harmful consequences in that it led to division of social classes and income disparity. Example of modernization in urbanization includes development of towns and cities, high level of employment and higher standards of living. It was influenced by new technologies and development of factory systems. However, urbanization led to rise in crime, corruption, immigration, resentment and social unrest (Perloff & Wingo, 72). The modernization in all the three areas was associated with industrial revolution since the revolution developed new ways of living. Modernization in agriculture was marked by food production, farming efficiency, livestock breeding, plant breeding, farm equipment and more. People believed that the growth was due to industrial revolution which led to revolution in agriculture. However, this led for land hunger and land wars between Native Americans and indigenous peoples. Immigration was high; there was family disruption and conflict between labor unions (Perloff & Wingo, 78).
5. The class conflict is between the poor and the wealth. In other words, class conflict is between people who are at the higher ladder of economy or people who established means of production (capitalist class) and  people who must  who work to sustain others (working class) (Carter, 178).The class conflict is influenced by  a socio-economic structure which is capitalism. The latter comprises private property, profit motive and completion. Labor, movement is influenced by need to develop working condition, fair treatment, employment law, better wages, health benefits and more. Both capitalism and labor movement leads to class conflict in that capitalists treat workers unfairly and  workers develops labor movement to fight for their rights (Carter, 180).

6. During reconstruction, African Americans were freed from slavery, gained the right to vote, acquired land, accessed employment and utilized public property. However, they struggled from starvation, unemployment, after reconstruction, African American entered in the Gilded Age where they experienced economic growth and social transformation (Friedman, 235). For example, there was development in transportation, farming, market and industry. However, developed was achieved with a high cost since they encountered challenges associated with child labor and women’s right where women were denied right to vote. In addition, there was labor violence and conflict which was influenced by labor unions. In year 1860s and 1890s, African Americans had developed reform movements which aimed at eliminating discrimination and creating education and employment rights (Friedman, 237). During this period, life changed in that slavery was eliminated and they gained an opportunity to access land and political power.

Work cited

Bucy S. Carole. Tennessee through Time, The Later Years. Gibbs Smith, 2007

McGeehan, John, and Morris Gall. Let's Review: U.s. History and Government. Hauppauge, NY:

Barron's Educational Series, 2008. Print.

Soennichsen, John R. The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882. Santa Barbara, Calif: Greenwood, 2011.

Print.

Fitzpatrick, Ellen F. History's Memory: Writing America's Past, 1880-1980. Cambridge, Mass:

Harvard University Press, 2002. Print.

Whaples, Robert. Historical Perspectives on the American Economy: Selected Readings.

Cambridge [u.a.: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1996. Print. 

Warner, Sam B. Streetcar Suburbs: The Process of Growth in Boston, 1870-1900. , 1978.

Internet resource.

Geipel, Robert. Long-term Consequences of Disasters: The Reconstruction of Friuli, Italy, in Its

International Context, 1976-1988. New York, NY: Springer New York, 1991. Internet

resource.

Friedman, Lawrence M, and Harry N. Scheiber. American Law and the Constitutional Order:

Historical Perspectives. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1988. Print.

Perloff S. Harvey & Wingo Jr. Lowdon. Issues in Urban Economics. Routledge, 2013

Carter B. Capitalism, Class Conflict and the New Middle Class (RLE Social Theory). Routledge,

2014

A Time for Choosing

Ronald Reagan uses his speech, to pass information to the people, thus making them to understand how different political issues relate to each other. He uses anecdotes to successfully communicate thus developing a personal attachment to contentious issues hence appealing to the people. Reagan uses anecdotes when addressing his audience usually composed of the conservatives, the use of anecdotes is as a means of personalizing the speech, thus making the audience to easily understand his way of delivering speech. In addition, his speech is also composed of references, this is particularly when he was talking about a Cuban refugee who told him, that he was luckier as compared to other Americans, because he had found a place to run to, after being oppressed by the US (Patterson & Morrison, 2016). In this story, Reagan wanted to show how superior the US was, since it could not be compared to any other country. The anecdote was consequently meant to depict the unique freedom which Americans tend to enjoy.

The endorsement and promotion of Barry Goldwater’s and his son campaign was the main reason as to why Reagan made his speech. Through the use of anecdotes, Reagan creates and image of a man who does everything in order to see his son succeeding, a thing which most parents can easily relate to (Patterson & Morrison, 2016). Reagan consequently crowned Goldwater a lot of praises, and at some point, he stated that Goldwater told his son there is no strong foundation which is like the rock, than the foundation centred on fairness and honesty, hence when one builds a foundation on that rock, and cements it with faith in God, then nothing can oppose him. This statement was a very strong, in the sense that it made it hard for either the Republicans or the Democrats to be able to understand how Goldwater was an honest man. Most people on both sides of the political divide would consequently vote for a person with such characteristics.

Reagan continues to use anecdotes as a means of attracting the attention of the audience, thus making them to pay more attention to his speech. When delivering his speech, most people keenly listen to him, knowing very well that he will be speak about the issues concerning their lives. Moreover, Reagan moves the crowd through speaking about the issues of concern in their lives. He moves forward to speak about war, and talks of asking a relative of a soldier who died in Vietnam, and says when such a relative is asked if this is peace which should be maintained, thus provoking the affected people making them to feel left out by the government. Reagan’s statement is consequently intended to attract the attention of the audience, and make them think of a possibility of another war which would be against communism (Patterson & Morrison, 2016). In other words, he is preparing the audience psychologically to show them that the lives of their relatives is more important than communism, hence there should be no war against communism. He moves forward to say that war is not something which can be easily forgotten, as it creates memories particularly to those who lost friends and relatives in the battlefield. People who lost friends and relatives in the battlefield would consequently think twice about war, because they understand the pain which a person goes through after losing a loved one, in the name of fighting for democracy.

Reagan backs up his statements through providing historical information concerning the issues of war, as a means of convincing the audience. In addition, he says that the past is very significant in shaping our future, because it shows us and explains to us about the past events, hence assuring us of a brighter future (Patterson & Morrison, 2016). Reagan moves forward to make a contradictory statement, which seeks to give hope to the audience, through making them to think otherwise. He talks of the future being frightening, then goes back and talks about the past, thus making the audience to develop a sense of peace. While speaking about the issue of a brighter future, and he states that success comes with its sacrifices, which could also mean loss of lives. At this point, he makes another contradictory statement through stating that in as much as people believe that life is very important, and peace remains relevant, slavery and chains should not be a means of purchasing peace. He also uses biblical allusion in order to clearly explain the effects of war, thus using examples such as that of Moses and Pharaoh in Egypt, after the enslavement of the Israelites in Egypt by the Pharaoh. Biblical allusion is used in making the audience to understand how sacrifices are usually made, and why life is more important than sacrifices. Furthermore, through biblical allusion, he shows that those who died in the war, did not die just like that, but they are the reasons as to why there is peace in the US, in other words, this statement meant that those who died in the battlefield were the sacrifices of success, which does not come easily.

‘A Time for Choosing’ was a very strong speech which moved a lot of people, and it made a way for Reagan in politics. As it was with Obama during his 2004 speech during the Democratic National Convention, this speech was meant to not only campaign for Goldwater and his son, but to also appeal to the Americans, that he too could become a great leader (Patterson & Morrison, 2016). The Americans saw the type of leadership which was in him through the speech, making him to stand out before most people. Moreover, the speech also pointed out his character, as a person who is persuasive and hopeful, and a person who thinks about the future of the country. This was a move which made it easier for Reagan to appeal to the Americans, that he was not only qualified to be a leader, but he also understood what the Americans went through in their lives, and he would only support people who care about them, such as Goldwater.

This speech was not however taken positively by other politicians, due to the impact which it had to the community. Richard Nixon, had lost the presidential nominees in 1960’s but owed Reagan respect, and he also knew how good Reagan was at campaigning (Patterson & Morrison, 2016). Reagan had earlier on campaigned for Nixon while he was running for a gubernatorial seat. However, Nixon had lost the governorship bid.  Nixon knew and understood how Reagan was gifted, and how great he could become in the American politics. While some saw him as a person who was gifted politically, Nixon also saw him as a competitor. The speech did not only move Nixon, but it also moved a lot of people, since it changed their perception of politics and political leaders. The speech foreshadowed the political future of Reagan, making his political competitors to be on toes. The Americans did not only listen to the speech, but they also felt it, making them to think about Reagan’s political future.

In the year 1968, Reagan was chosen as Republicans presidential nominee, and in his first presidential campaign, Reagan showed the Americans how good their country was (Patterson & Morrison, 2016). The main objective of Reagan was consequently to show Americans that the country was still amazing, and they could still achieve whatever they were looking for in the country. Reagan’s speech was so special, that it gave Goldwater a direct entry to the white house. Americans saw the potential in Goldwater, because Reagan had given them the assurance of how good Goldwater was.

Conclusion

Ronald Reagan’s speech unique and one of a kind, one which prepared him for presidency, and one which paved way for Goldwater to be the president of the US, in the year 1964. Reagan restored the confidence of the Americans, after showing them how success and peace was achieved in battlefield, during the Vietnam War. Moreover, Reagan made it clear that Goldwater was the president America needed, due to his characters and way of ruling. Reagan’s political success was also pointed out during the speech, making most Americans, to see the potential he had. He moved crowds, and mobilized them to vote for Goldwater, thus changing the political course of America, and the perceptions of the Americans regarding politicians.

Reference

In Patterson, E., & In Morrison, J. H. (2016). The Reagan manifesto: "a time for choosing" and its influence.

History

Hitler

Adolf Hitler was born in 1889 by his parents Alois Hilter and Klara Polzl in Braunau am Inn, Australia. He committed suicide in 1945 after defeat of his empire by strong nations (Haugen, 9). At school, he was an outgoing and a confident student but after the death of Edmund (his younger brother) he was completely detached from his father and teachers. In his childhood, he showed interest in fine arts but his harsh father could not allow him to develop this career. This made Hitter to engage in antisocial behaviors and developed unstable temperament to his ruthless father (Haugen, 17). At a young age, Hitler started to show interest in German nationalism and during this period, he rejected the Habsburg Monarchy and it authority in an ethnic empire.   

After the death of his father in 1903, Hitler performed poor in school and in 1904; he joined Realschule and shaped his behaviors a bit. However, year 1905 was the end of his education since at this time he left the school and he had no thoughts for furthering education of career (Haugen, 18). After the death of her mother in 1907, he became a casual laborer but life was difficult to an extent that he ended up living in homeless shelters. In 1913, he left Vienna and moved to Munich. During the First World War, he requested to join the Bavarian Army where he won awards such as Iron Cross First Class for his effort and heroic deeds during the war (Haugen, 20).

 Rise to power

 Hitler entered in the political filed after World War 1. Since German had  not won  in the war, he was  resentful  and  argued that  the defeat was contributed by Treaty of Versailles- for blaming German for the  loss and damage and  for giving land  to France(Haugen,53). There was also economic depression which led to unemployment. In the political field, people had known him as a powerful person and they adored to his rule. During this period, he became the leader of the Nazi party and in 1933, he become the Chancellor of Germany in 1932 (Haugen, 63). In his leadership, he controlled governmental levels and political institutions and being a powerful rule, he was the head of state. Hitler believed that Germany   had to gain control over Europe and gain a territory. He wanted Germany to gain a territory from Australia, Czechoslovakia and Poland.  The war was between the Axis powers and Allied powers. Hitler’s army captured few European nations but later in 1944, the allies captured the beaches of Normandy.  In 1945, the Allied powers   defeated German and the defeat made Hitler to commit suicide in April 1945(Haugen, 75).

Work cited

Haugen, Brenda. Adolf Hitler: Dictator of Nazi Germany. Minneapolis, Minn: Compass Point Books, 2006.

Print.

History

The British government has sent me in India to work as a government clerk for the colonial administration. The two governments work together to achieve economic and social development. The unity started back in 1861 when Indian became under British administration for the purpose of developing India in terms of communication, agriculture and other areas (Roy & Anand, 15). British colonial legislation was influenced by company’s territories and this led to development of British India Law. British and India are united governments and the unification led to creation of British power in India (Roy & Anand, 19). The British government plays a fundamental role in making decision regarding development. In addition, the government addresses challenges faced by the country and controls the tensions which bring economic downturn. The two governments make economic policy for development such as infrastructure for export and import.  Even though the economic liberalization policy has led to economic development in India, there are some issues which need to be discussed regarding economic development (Roy & Anand, 23). Such issues include reformation of legal infrastructure, land laws and labor laws. The British Empire participates in making social norms, addressing legal matters and making institutions. The colonial power ensures effective policies and laws for development. The colonial system is important in creating a positive culture, political structure and economy in India. The British government creates economic goals to the country and this brings benefit to the mother country. Also understand that through economic controls, India became stable in terms of economic development and political control.  India also enriches the mother country by creating a positive economic well-being (Roy & Anand, 25). Thus, the government has sent me to conduct office task related to the colonial system.  

Work cited

Roy, Tirthankar, and Anand V. Swamy. Law and the Economy in Colonial India. , 2016. Print.

Augustus and the Creation of the Roman Empire

Introduction

Augustus was the first Roman Empire who transformed Rome from a republic to an empire, during the unrestrained years, after the murder of his uncle who was also his adoptive parent, Julius Caesar. He combined the military strength, foundation-building and statutory, thus becoming Rome’s single ruler, who laid the foundations of two centuries Pax Romana. In addition, Augustus was also able to maintain Rome’s peace through the Pax Romana, for a period of 1,500 years. He was very patient, skilled and efficient in providing ways through which the Roman Empire could become stable again. This paper will therefore converse the rise, achievements and legacy of Augustus and the Roman Empire.

The Rise of Augustus and the Roman Empire

Augustus supported his uncle Julius Caesar in winning the civil war in Africa, a move which made Julius Caesar to vow to adopt him. While in Apollonia undertaking military studies, Augustus learnt that Julius Caesar had been murdered. Augustus returned to Italy at the age of 18 years, and was told that Julius Caesar had adopted him as the leader of Rome (Mellor, 2005, 33). Mark Anthony, who was the Chief Lieutenant of Julius Caesar, refused to hand over Julius Caesar’s possessions to Augustus, and Brutus and Cassius, who were the masterminds behind the assassination of Julius Caesar, withdrew to the east.

Augustus and Mark Anthony later came into an agreement, and crossed the Adriatic, and under the leadership of Anthony, they won the battles of Philippi. This was a war which was won against Cassius and Brutus who had fled to the east (Mellor, 2005, 33). The victory over the two battles of Philippi changed the Roman Empire, marking a new beginning in the Roman Empire. During this period, Augustus who was the successor of Julius Caesar, had achieved what Caesar had failed to achieve, leading to his assassination (Hall, 192, 20).

Augustus and Rome’s Military Success

Augustus military success began immediately after falling out with Mark Anthony. This was a major challenge to Augustus, which was commonly known as Octavian during this period, a move which made him to come up with ways of restructuring the Roman military. After defeating Mark Anthony, most soldiers pledged allegiance to the Roman Empire, making the empire to remain strong. However, Augustus replaced Mark Anthony with Marcus Agrippa, who was Augustus classmate (Mellor, 2005, 41). Agrippa had no prior military experience, but was able to thrash Mark Anthony, making the Roman Empire to emerge victorious against Mark Anthony. Agrippa proved to be a strong Lieutenant as compared to Mark Anthony, as he won more battles, with a low military experience.

Under the leadership of Agrippa, the Roman military became very strong, due to the unique strategies which were employed in war (Hall, 192, 27). Lepidus was forced to into retirement, after seeking to contest over the Supremacy of Augusts. Lepidus was disarmed by Augustus military under the leadership of Agrippa, making the empire to remain peaceful.

Agrippa and Augustus succeeded in sending Mark Anthony out of Methone, after shutting Anthony’s fleet on the Gulf of Arta (Mellor, 2005, 43). This was during the battle of Actium, where Anthony was forced to flee to Egypt, after efforts to extricate his ships failed. Augustus later conquered Egypt, where Anthony had fled to, hence forcing him to commute suicide. This consequently marked the military success of Augustus, making the Roman Empire to rise again.

[1] [2][3]

The Achievements of Augustus and the Roman Empire, and way of Ruling

            Augustus was determined to change the lives of the Romans, and he did everything to bring back the peace which Rome deserved. After the assassination of Julius Caesar, Augustus was determined to win the Philippi war, thus joining Mark Anthony in conquering Brutus and Cassius (Hall, 192, 27). Winning the Philippi war was one of the major achievements of Augustus, and according to Mellor in the first document on the achievements of Augustus, this was a period when Rome ushered in peace, after a century of civil unrest. Previously, under the rule of Julius Caesar, Rome had lost the Philippi war, thus making it hard for the empire to control its activities in peace (Mellor, 2005, 45). Augustus was determined to restore the peace which the Roman Empire had enjoyed, and the only way to do so, was through winning the Philippi war. After this victory, Augustus was able to restore peace in Rome, thus paving way for the establishment of the Roman Empire.

Augustus focused on the development of the Roman Empire. In order to grow the Roman Empire, Augustus ordered the construction of a highway, linking Rome and its empire. This was a move which was aimed at growing the economy of Rome, through allowing most activities to take place within the Roman Empire. Secondly, Augustus also developed an operational postal system, which aimed at easing communication within the Roman Empire. Transport and communication within the Roman Empire became smooth, making other empires to easily trade with Rome (Hall, 192, 41). Furthermore, most bridges and buildings were constructed in Rome, in order to ease transport and communication within the empire, thus making it to become a develop empire.

            Augustus did not only develop Rome, but he also expanded the empire. During the reign of Augustus, he was able to expand the Rome, thus taking over regions like Dalmatia, Spain, Pannonia, Gaul and Egypt (Hall, 192, 41). The Roman Empire was expanded through a strong army which had been brought up by Augustus, thus making it easier for Rome to conquer other empires, hence expanding its spheres of influence. Rome became dominant empires during Augustus reign, due to the military strength which it possessed.

            Augustus ruled the Roman Empire with love, and was only concerned with the prosperity of the empire. As a leader, Augustus was only concerned with the development of Rome, and not with enriching himself (Mellor, 2005, 51). Out of the love which Augustus had for his empire, he denied the title of a dictator. Augustus was dedicated to improve the state of the empire, thus ruling for a period of ten years as one trios who rejuvenated Rome. Through the achievements provided in this paper, it is clearly right to state that Augustus achieved more than what other leaders had achieved while ruling the Roman Empire.

Conclusion

            The paper has discussed the rise of the Roman Empire, its political and military achievements under the rule of Augusts. Judging from the information provided, it is clearly evident that, Augustus was able to propel the Roman Empire towards the right direction, through developments, and military achievements. In addition, as stated in the paper, the Augustus’ form of ruling was different from Julius Caesar’s, since Augustus was not a dictator, but he used aristocracy form of leadership. Augustus was consequently able to deliver Rome from a republic to an empire, hence maintaining peace in the empire.

Bibliography

Mellor, Ronald. 2005. Augustus and the creation of the Roman empire: a brief history with documents. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.

Hall, Clayton Morris. 1923. Nicolaus of Damascus' Life of Augustus, a historical commentary embodying a translation. A dissertation ... by Clayton M. Hall. Menasha: G. Banta.

[1] Ronald Mellor, Augustus and the Creation of the Roman Empire: A Brief History with Documents (Boston: Bedford/St Martins, 2006)48

[2] Nicholas of Damascus, Life of Augustus, translated by Clayton Hall (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1923) 8, 11, quoted Mwllor, Augustus and the Creation of the Roman Empire (Boston: Bedford /St

What was the Northern Renaissance its leading ideas, and major achievement?

Northern renaissance was the rebirth of Europe or a period when Europe gained civilization and created a classical learning and culture. The renaissance was influenced by Italian renaissance and the leading ideas of the rebirth were based on gaining classical studies, gain realism, human dignity, develop social reforms and developing Christianity (Chapter 14). The Italian renaissance mainly focused on the human life and had the interest to bring new way of life. Northern renaissance focused on the importance of ancient past and their role in creating better way of life. In addition, humanism values were also the driving force toward renaissance since they believed that this was the only way in which human beings could achieve freedom. Northern renaissance had a religious nature and humanists such as Erasmus believed on classical world and church reformation, and rejected the abuses and corruption (Chapter 14). In addition, he believed that the Christianity and ancient cultures were important in developing a religious character. Remarkably, northern renaissance was associated with various achievements in that there were many writers and artists who developed ‘new learning’ ancient text and bibles. During the period of 15th and 16th century, Northern Europe had an economic recovery in terms of development of new trade routes and cities (Chapter 14). In addition, there was peace and stability, and wealth which were strengthened by the relation between Northern and Southern Europe. The wealth empowered the artists and writers in developing art and values. Other achievement was the culture change which was reinforced by the humanist’s ideas. Italian humanist France and England monarchies supported the culture change and led to a big difference between feudalism and new ideas as well as new way of living (Chapter 14). The monarchies focused on renaissance ideas and led to the development of society roles and centralized powers.

 What are the major achievements in baroque art, architecture, literature and music?

 Baroque period presented the catholic resurgence which was based on the development of spiritual movement, religious orders and other reforms (Chapter 15). The purpose of Baroque art was to strengthen the goals of Counter-reformation which were connected with the need for predominance and centrality. In addition, art, music and architecture presented the catholic theology. Achievements during the Baroque era were seen in two areas namely, Counter-reformation and Reformation. These developments were connected with Catholic Church which focused on religious ideas and presentation of the ideas through literature, music, drama and painting (Chapter 15).  Focusing on the achievement, Roman Catholic Church was reformed and developed to Counter Reformation which comprised the inspirational art and classical ideas. In addition, it compromised dynamic and emotional art which presented the celebration of power and God’s authority. Baroque age was a period of religious ideology which focused on strengthening the classical ideals, developing intellectual movement and creating a modern world. Roman Catholic Church believed that the religious themes were to be communicated through arts and this was to be achieved by the use of power and theatrical adventure. During the baroque period, art, music and literature led to counter-reformation where new means of expressions such as mannerism were developed (Chapter 15).. During this period, the Roman Catholic Church created an artistic program which strengthened the religious image and spiritual faith. St.Theresa in Ecstasy was created in Baroque art and this represented the Catholic Reformation. The Baroque age led to the development of absolute monarchies which were presented by Baroque places and picture market which presented the realism. In 17th center, landscape painting was development and these presented the human awareness and human insignificance. Art, music and architecture during this period were mainly connected with naturalism and classicism (Chapter 15). Other achievement was the development of human intellectual horizons and new values. 

Reference

Chapter 15. The Baroque Age 1 Glamour and Grandiosity 16-1715.

Chapter 14.Northern Humanism, Northern Renaissance, Religious Reformation, and Late Mannerism 1500-1603.

Holocaust representation

It is difficult to understand how one can represent the extremism in Holocaust while in theory, it is not possible to do so without in a way validating or appreciating in way the culture that led to it.  If genocide becomes part of cultural property in literature, it is easier for someone to confirm with a culture that led to murder. While it may is not true that holocaust is unspeakable, the notion by scholars that survivor testimony may be too imaginative can be said to be trivializing the murders and failing to condemn the culture that raised these atrocities.  It is not impossible that some representation of the Holocaust may cross the line of moral prohibition, so that it demeans the extent of the suffering that the victims underwent (Richardson, 2005).  Therefore, there can raise a moral problem of representation and in literature, it is impossible to adequately convey the real and lived experience of the Holocaust victims. The literature representation will, in most cases, be in danger of representing the experience as per the situation in which it occurred.  The literature representation of the physical pain and other suffering that victims endured in the camps may go beyond what is appropriate if there is a possibility that any form of pleasure can be derived from this narration.

 Even if the role of literature is necessary for the sake of memory of what happened, ethics and morality may forbid the depiction of the sufferings in way that it is viewed as sources of entertainment. Such kind of representation slides off into the futility of even commemorating such an incident.  If the Holocaust experience is rendered as literature work, where it is expressed in written form so as to impart some meaning to these suffering may not augur well with everyone. This amounts to trivializing the whole occurrence and the atrocities meted on the victims. The Holocaust has something like the ultimate knot with defined boundaries where one cannot go further. It is unique in that it has fire circle built around it, which cannot be transgressed by anyone since conveying a specific type of horror is difficult (Lanzmann, 1994). Representing the Holocaust in a manner that involves fiction can evoke bad sensation of pleasure and this can be termed as trivializing the whole experience. This kind of representation may become intolerable and offensive to any survivor and cultural sensibility related to the Holocaust itself.

 However, the decision to tell the experience should be left to the survivors at their own discretion, since also have a sense of what is to be told and what is inappropriate (Phillips & Morley, 2003). It involves weighing the survivor’s testimony against the logic of remaining silence to avoid a representation that may be seen as honoring the suffering. The representation of holocaust is, however, necessary to prevent a case of a repressed memory where humans may forget the consequences of extremism, and embark on a path that nurtures the culture that brought about the murder and genocide. To avoid honoring a culture that bred extremism, the survivors should be allowed to give their own account after time has elapsed and so that they are not affected by the recall of the trauma (Kearney, 1999). The psychological and historical value of the Holocaust should justify literature representation of the experience but on basis of facts and not fiction.

References

Lanzmann, C. (1994). Schindler’s List is an impossible story. University College Utrecht.

Kearney, R. (1999). Narrative and the Ethics of Remembrance. Questioning Ethics, 18-32.

Phillips, J., & Morley, J. (2003). Imagination and its pathologies. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press.  57

Richardson, A. (2005). The ethical limitations of holocaust literary representation, eSharp, 5. Borders and Boundaries.

Italian history

 From a social perspective, women were supposed to take care of households’ affairs and were not supposed to be doing similar work as men in the market place. In Leon Battista’s writing, it would be disrespectful to the husbands for women to be seen in the public while men remained in the house like women. While women remained in the house, men were supposed to be doing manly things like other men, citizens and even worthy foreigners, (Alberti, 162).  The characters of women was seen as being weaker than that of men, and were viewed as timid, slow and soft and hence were best suited at minor things. The meant that they could not venture out to perform economic activities like men such as travelling on foreign land, gathering and acquiring of fortune. By nature, women were viewed as having lower mind capability than men. The perceived weak character meant that women could not also be involved politically since they could defend against an enemy, and the role of defense and her own protection was supposed to be provided by her husband. Giannozzo explains that he gave access to his wife all his household treasures but kept his records and books and those of his ancestors away from his wife so that she could not read or lay hands on them, (Alberti ,164). The wife was to be taught by her husband how to be submissive and obedient, and in fact her virtues and modesty had to be greater so that she could social qualify to be a good wife. Modesty raised her social profile so that she would be honored by other people especially neighbors and her chastity is majorly acceptable to God and her family.

In Castiglione’s writings, women seem to occupy a better status in the society, have political power, and are highly regarded especially those adorned with beauty. Even the lady servants are accorded respect especially if they serve the noble ruler.  However, her character and quality standards measured against man. Magnifico in the writing argues that, though women and men have common qualities, there are some things that fit a woman than man and vice versa. The words, gestures, manners and bearing of a woman should not be the same as man, so that the woman displays a delicate and soft tenderness, show a feminine sweetness that would make her appear womanly, (Castiglione, 3). However, she also appeared displayed as weak; hence, she had to maintain her honor by not attracting reproach. She would not defend herself since she lacks resources attributed to man. A woman was supposed to take care of her husband’s belongs and family, while her virtue and discernment protected her against arrogant men (Castiglione, 4). The woman was also supposed to be well knowledgeable and educated in various subjects so as to address people well. Men like Magnifico saw the equality between men and women in regard to mind’s ability , while others like Gaspare perceives nature as having granting women lower political and economic opportunities since they are weak.

 The noble and economically strong women occupied a higher status than other women in the lower classes. Those in from noble families had opportunities for leading like the Dutches, while others wre supposed to occupy their places as honorable wives and mothers who depend on men for protection and knowledge. The knowledgeable ones showed a liberated mind and viewed themselves as capable as men. Laura Cereta overcame her grieving over the death of her husband by immersing in literary studies (Castiglione,1488). The letter addressed to a man is a thorough defense of a learned woman. Her proof that she has the ability of the mind like man is an indication of a woman provided by an opportunity to learn.

Reference

Alberti, L, B. Marriage the family and women. 162 ,164

Laura Cereta, "Letter to Bibulus Sempronius, 13 January 1488"

Castiglione. The Book of the Courtier

Sumerian and the nether world

Both the Sumerians and the nether have a very different belief of death in relation to the customs and cultures. The souls of the dead according to believe is that they did descend into the nether world from the graves which are physically a rough space to heaven. The dead are to use a certain ferry to cross over to the other side since the river is impassable even for the souls. In this land, all the occupants needed much more than spiritual assistance including the food they ate, clothing and any other necessity but their sky god never needed any help, therefore, he was their provider (Black, 2006). Beneath them were the courts where some justice would be offered in terms of sacrifices and this was to follow some hierarchical procedures for delivery of justice. Both dead and the deceased were not treated similarly since the dead would be judged by the sun-god and the moon-god at the same time therefore as much as most would like to celebrate, there were zero chances to celebrate.

 On the part of the Sumerians, nothing seemed hopeful on this section since they were all convinced that the life which one would experience in the nether world would be nothing to scare them. The insights obtained from such progressive work is that there are differences experienced when one dies and which is optimal, the soul has a difficult time navigating through the spirits making it more scarily than in real life. The nether world does not seem like a fun place where one can desire to be but death is not by choice to the world (Black, 2006). With this acts, it is genuinely correct that the Sumerians do not fear the after world real life situation but always optimistic of being alive.

What seems unlikeable is the fact that death is described as a humorous event which creates less hope to those who are alive. Just like the Sumerians who do not fear to die and everything that happens to the soul, humanity in real sense fears death (Black, 2006). It is inconclusive to term death as not being a fearful act.

Materials that are similarly important for this kind of work are mostly related to the myths and facts about life and death. The courage to talk about death from this particular perspective is hard but the author makes it seem so simple and a norm.

When the body and the soul separate, there are zero chances that a person can identify where or what the soul does. According to learning, the soul so stays in the atmosphere until the judgment day meaning that all the departed ones are still in the air waiting and therefore the nether world does not exist.

Reference

Black, J. (Ed.). (2006). The literature of ancient Sumer. Oxford University Press on Demand.