Qualitative Field Research

Strengths

Qualitative field research is beneficial given that it is primarily utilized to explore real issues affecting the society (Khan, 2011). The technique permits the investigators to acquire primary knowledge as well as responses from real respondents in regard to the issue being investigated. This, therefore, implies that unlike other techniques the researcher has the opportunity of acquiring maximum information which is accurate and reliable (Khan, 2011). In addition, Qualitative field study technique is essential for understanding social setting responsibility in modeling individual’s familiarities and lives (Bachman & Schutt, 2017). In that, it creates greater comprehension of social complexities which might be useful in uncovering issues that one might not be aware.

Limitations

On the other hand, a qualitative field study is also associated with some weaknesses. In that, despite the fact that it is characterized by detailed data it is time-consuming because the researcher is forced to conduct the investigation and acquire responses from as most individuals as possible in order to develop an identical pattern (Khan, 2011). In addition, the technique is more prone to bias and inaccuracy given that the research can choose to eliminate certain responses by perceiving them to be irrelevant (Khan, 2011).

Two Examples of Research Questions

Research questions

1. Is Capital Punishment Justified?
2. Is capital punishment discriminatory and does it lead to crime and sentencing disparity?

In my opinion, in reference to criminal justice, the topic that could be tested using qualitative field research is capital punishment. Death punishment is one of the criminal justice approaches where an individual proved to be a criminal is placed on the death penalty. Field research can, therefore, be utilized to establish whether the death penalty is justified in regard to ethics given that it is argued that the act is an intrusion of human rights (Bachman & Schutt, 2017). The topic suits the technique because it involves a real issue in the actual world.

References

Bachman, R., & Schutt, R. K. (2017). The Practice of Research in Criminology and Criminal Justice (6th Ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Khan, J. A. (2011). Research methodology. New Delhi: APH Publishing Corporation. APH Publishing Corportaion.

Qualitative Field Research Methods

Qualitative research is mainly focused on considering as well as understanding individual’s social background by accessing their familiarities. Qualitative field research is divided in for major strategies. To begin with, direct observation refers to the approach where information is mainly acquired via a thorough examination of a real social background (Khan, 2011). Contrary to direct qualitative examination this method does not involve the sample directly in interrogations or conversation but the observer mainly strives to be discreet and disconnected from the given background. In a qualitative study, this method is not a needed option as other field strategies are more appropriate but it is usually the actual approach that is useful in gaining better comprehension of the setting (Khan, 2011).

Participant Observation

This is a field research strategy in which the researcher is involved in developing an actual understanding of the arrangement of the given background by acquiring an actual experience with the respondents (Khan, 2011). The method is usually utilized when investigating several issues simultaneously that required actual experiences. The technique has been utilized for decades in understanding life’s complexity (Khan, 2011).

Qualitative Interviews

This refers to the kind of field research approach that produces information and responses directly by asking queries to the selected populace. Qualitative interviews might be in form of conversation, informal interrogation, and questionnaires which can be open-ended, organized or partially organized (Khan, 2011). This is usually conducted after direct observation and is most suitable in instances when the investigator is in search of flexibility in following certain thoughts as they develop.

Focus Group

This is the strategy where the investigator incorporates smaller participant’s sets in dialogue that are mainly created to produce suitable research queries. The group normally incorporates less than 15 participants and are normally utilized in order to assess trends that happen within societies as well as in the economic community (Bachman & Schutt, 2017).

Why Participant Observation Is Considered Archetypal

Participant Observation is mainly involved in the examination of anthropology investigation. It is referred as archetypal because it is more typical and involves the examination of the various aspects of life (Bachman & Schutt, 2017). In addition, the method works beyond environmentalist observation given that the observer is also a participant who attempts to acquire real experience. It is through this approach that the quality of existence is improved given that it mainly investigates sociological issues which affect wellness and the observer attempts to acquire actual familiarity (Bachman & Schutt, 2017).

Strengths and Limitations of Participant Observation

Participant observation is associated with validity, flexibility and practical benefits. In that, the methods normally generate wealthy qualitative information which demonstrates how individuals exist. In addition, through the actual participation, the researcher is able to acquire empathy via personal familiarity (Fogel, 2007). The flexibility of the technique creates open-mindedness and even the sensitive individuals can begin to gain trust which helps in generating accuracy. However, the technique is advantageous because it generates a smaller representation, biases and creates severe ethical challenges.  In that, the researcher is forced to deceive others which is not ethical in order to acquire real responses (Fogel, 2007). In addition, it takes so much time in generating minimal information which might create delays. Being involved creates bias issues given that the observer begins to sympathize with the group in general where one might focus only on generating positive responses while ignoring the actual issues which create inaccuracy due to judgment involvement (Fogel, 2007).

References

Bachman, R., & Schutt, R. K. (2017). The Practice of Research in Criminology and Criminal Justice (6th Ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Khan, J. A. (2011). Research methodology. New Delhi: APH Publishing Corporation. APH Publishing Corportaion.

Fogel, C. (2007). Ethical issues in field-based criminological research in Canada. International Journal of Criminal Justice Sciences, 2(2), 109–118.

National Association of Area Agencies on Aging

Introduction

National Association of Area Agencies on Aging (n4a) advocates for issues addressed by agencies representing aging citizens in the country. The main issue addressed by this stakeholder organization is to advocate for provision of information on health and personal care for the elderly. The organization works with other stakeholders to provide the care services to these individuals.

This is an umbrella organization for various agencies on aging and aging programs in the United States. The organization is has its presence in large areas and  usually advocates on behalf of the various aging agencies in local areas to make sure that the support services and resources required are availed to the older American citizens. The organization established 800 as a toll-free number that is used to identify Information and Referral services that are offered by the Area Agencies and Washington D.C. The service is financially supported by U.S Administration on Aging and this is done through corporation with National Association of State Units in Aging (N4a,2017).  The organization seeks to address various issues affecting the elderly people such as food delivery, information and referral services, employment services, transportation m adult care and providing long-term health care through the ombudsman program. To achieve these objectives, the organization represents area agencies on aging so that they are able to coordinate and provide support for the aforementioned community and home services. The organization also offers general training, technical and administrative assistance associated with the management of the various programs to area agencies. It also offers other efforts related to assisting friends and families find relevant information concerning community services for the elderly. In essence, the organization focus providing various services that are necessary for the wellbeing of older people by supporting various agencies whose mission is to do the same. Through such assistance, coordination of services directed towards the old is achieved throughout the country.  By addressing the issues concerning the older people, the organization ensures that these people are provided the right care services using the available resources (N4a,2017). The elderly represented by various aging agencies become aware of the various services provided including community-based and in-home services and hence can benefit from the services.

 The organization works in conjunction with various stakeholders in providing support and assistance to the elderly citizens and especially in running various programs that are focused on these individuals. The government provides assistance to the organization efforts through programs such as Medicare, Medicaid and different caregivers. Medicare is a program for health insurance for those individuals with 65 or more years of age including those who have End- Stage Renal Disease especially kidney failure the needs transplant and dialysis. Medicaid program provides health insurance for the needy and low-income, disabled for the aged. The organization also employs the services of care givers who are either paid or unpaid people who assists the elder by providing personal care, household tasks and even companionship. Hence, they provide medication services such as medication reminders, ambulation and exercise; meal preparation, cleaning and other errand needed; gives a listening ear and helping the elderly to attend to their personal matters such as appointments and other outings.  Through various programs such as SCSEP run by the U.S Labor Department and in conjunction with other employers, the organization helps the elderly job seekers to find employment (N4a, 2017). It also helps in finding training opportunities that can go a long way in ensuring that they gain economic independence and even security.  There is a link created between the elderly person who is a victim of abuse and the criminal justice system through the Senior Victim Advocate Program.

Life Matters LLC is a firm with an exclusive focus on the unique financial issues related to a long life of an individual. The organization assists the elderly people and their relatives or families in negotiating through various challenges associated with long life. When the elderly citizens encounters the increasing cost associated with long-run health and personal care, the organization provides an avenue for these individuals to access objective, compassionate and professional guidance. The organization listen to the individuals who are elderly and try their best to understand their desires , needs and other pressing financial scenarios and pressing persona needs (Life Matters LLC, n.d). The aim is to assist the clients in preventing possible future financial devastation that may be brought about by the cost related to long-term care. As an insurance brokerage for the senior healthcare, the organization specializes in Medi-gap or Medicare Supplement which are important for the wellbeing of the older persons in the society.  With a goal of averting financial devastation, the organization embarks on devising strategies that are aimed at protecting the assets of the client in case a long-term care is required in the future. The strategies are devised in case of a preventive planning situation before any long-standing care costs can be incurred by the individuals. In addition, even where the family is already experiencing cost related to long-term care costs, the organization goes ahead to plan for mitigation of effects involving such a situation. This is in line with N4a’s desire that involves ensuring the elderly people are provided with best healthcare while retaining their financial and economic independence. In conjunction with 4Na as a representative of the aging agencies, the firm utilizes the network of professionals and providers of care for the elderly to offer the best services to the clients (Life Matters LLC, n.d). Therefore, through Medicaid planning, financial assessment, long-term cares planning and asset protection the firm is able to offer the best services to the older persons.

The Life Matters firm is under the leadership of Scott Thompson who is the Chief Executive Officer and also the founder of the organization. Scott Thompson graduated from Millersville University with a Bachelor of Science degree in Finance and has been a founder and leader in various firms. His leadership experience can be demonstrated in his experience in strategy, finances and operations and he has been recognized and awarded for the same (Life Matters LLC, n.d). His duties involve overseeing strategy development and ensuring the implementation of the strategies in the organization. He undertakes the responsibility of ensuring that the members of the team working under him perform their function in accordance to the goal and mission of the organization. Given that his organization has an interest in providing health insurance to the elderly and other health related care, his leadership experience and skills align with the need to provide personal and health care to the elderly persons. The management position is important since important decisions on stakeholder relations are made at that level. Knowledge and skills on management are important in establishing supportive collaboration with various stakeholders including aging agencies and formulating strategies that involve providing health and personal care to the elderly. The person pursuing a career in management has the capacity to formulate strategies that will bring together various stakeholders in the health care system to have a common aim of improving health services.

Conclusion

Personal and health care services for the elderly can be improved through collaboration among various stakeholders who provide them. Provision of information on these services to the elderly is necessary so that they can access these services. Management knowledge and skills are necessary in formulation of strategies for provision of health care services to the elderly.

References

Life Matters LLC, (n.d). Retrieved from: http://longlifematters.com/

N4a, (2017).Area Agencies on Aging. Retrieved from: https://www.n4a.org/Files/LocalLeadersAAA2017.pdf

Theory & Research

 Theory plays an important role in enabling researchers conduct valuable things.  The role of theory or theoretical knowledge is to allow researchers come up with a systematic description of an event. For example, researchers use theories to understand why young people engage in antisocial behaviors at young age. Theories also play the role of organizing scientific observations and developing research questions. In scientific studies, researchers use theory in order to gain a comprehensive knowledge on the events (Bachman & Schutt, 2013). Theories are important in that researchers are able to create a plausible explanations and evaluation of social situations. In addition, theories are important as they help researchers organize events, understand the root cause of the events, and understand the occurrence and future vents.  Researchers are able to understand the nature and meaning of events. Research is a process where researchers find causal relationships in the operationalised concepts (Bachman & Schutt, 2013). In other words, researchers test hypothesis with a purpose of identifying factors which cause crime. Research involves procedures of testing theories without considering the real observations. Research is important as researchers are able to study crime using logical methods, hence minimizing risk and maximizing accuracy. After making a hypothesis, it is important to test the criminological theory through collecting numerical data and demographic data. Importance of research is that researchers are able to make empirical generalizations where an assessment is done to evaluate whether the results supports the theory (Bachman & Schutt, 2013).

Theory and research are related in two ways. First, theory and research are related through deductive reasoning. This means that researchers use theory and makes a hypothesis. Then, the hypothesis is tested through research and data collection.  Deductive reasoning help researches test ideas and set up expectations (Bachman & Schutt, 2013). Second, theory and research are related through inductive reasoning-this means that researchers use   bottom-up approach where they collects data and conducts observation. Then, theory is used to explain the data patterns.  Inductive releasing helps researchers conduct investigation and   collect data, then makes theoretical sense to the findings and draws a hypothesis (Bachman & Schutt, 2013).

"Research conclusions are only as good as the data and analysis used to generate the results."

            The final conclusion plays a significant role in evaluating success or failure. Note that data analysis is the key element used in making conclusion.  Data analysis provides variables relation and accuracy of the results (Bachman & Schutt, 2013).Analysis of both quantitative and qualitative data provides an accurate assessment as well the desires results. The above statement means that conclusion is accurate if the data analyzed is accurate. In other words, conclusion is made considering both deductive and inductive relations. Note that data analysis provides an empirical evidence since it supports or refutes the hypothesis, and thus draws a conclusion (Bachman & Schutt, 2013).

Reference

Bachman, R., & Schutt, R. K. (2013). The practice of research in criminology and criminal justice. SAGE

Publications,

A Subculture No More

Michael Hardwick differed with the court's statement by asserting that everything that he was doing in his own bedroom remains as his personal matter and thus the state law regulators should not be engaged. Given that he is a homosexual who was having an acceptable sexual interaction with his partner in his own house under closed doors without disturbing the public both men are entitled to privacy (Justia, 2017). Hardwick sued Georgia’s federal court by challenging the constitutionality in regard to sodomy law. The case was, however, rejected by the trial court but the case was reversed by the Appeals court by holding that it was particularly engaged in the violation of Hardwick’s essential privileges as a homosexual as well as stated that the action was private and intimate and therefore did not necessitate the regulation of the court (Justia, 2017). Based on the fact that homosexual marriages have been approved in most states as per today, such a law has the ability to remain constitutional given that it supports individual’s privileges of choice and privacy.

Homosexuality essentially impacts the general description of nuclear families in America. In that, a nuclear family is comprised of a specified family that encompasses children and two parents normally male and female. With the development of homosexuality, the description has particularly changed (Popenoe, 2008). This is because as homosexuality is being permitted by law in several states the general level of homosexual parents is on the rise given that they intend to create nuclear families. This, therefore, implies that the description encompasses parents from same or differing gender raising a family. The changing trend is a permanent one and will particularly increase in the future. This is because the approved laws encourage individuality something that is supported constitutionally (Weller, 2013).

References

Justia. (2017). Bowers V. Hardwick 4768 U.S. 186 (1986). Retrieved from https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/478/186/case.html

Lea B.A Weller. (2013). the Impact of Individualization on Families and Personal Relationships. Grin Verlag, Print.

Top of Form

Popenoe, D. (2008). War over the family. New Brunswick, N.J: Transaction Publishers.

Bottom of Form

Using Survey Research

Survey research is divided into three major types which are descriptive, exploratory and causal or explanatory (Bachman & Schutt, 2017). Every type plays a different role and can only be utilized in subsequent cases. The descriptive study is utilized to define as well as describe social related issues that are under examination (Bachman & Schutt, 2017). On the other hand, exploratory study is intended to establish the existing implication in relation to operations and individuals behavior in a specified category. This differs with explanatory research which is focused on establishing operations and implications of a certain social subject (Bachman & Schutt, 2017). These studies are objected are determining the general effects of applying interventions in regard to individuals conduct. In relation to the disparity of sentences and criminal activities, the descriptive research can be applied to define the social issue under interrogative examinations.

On the other hand, exploratory research can be utilized to evaluate the general effects of the occurring issues in relation to persons conducts in regard to crime. On the other hand, the explanatory research can be utilized in order to determine the most suitable interventions in dealing with the issue (Blaikie, 2010). In this case, surveys can be utilized to observe and collect data in relation to the description of the issue, the effects and probable interventions (Blaikie, 2010).

Descriptive Research Open and Closed Ended Questions

Open ended: What are the major causes of crime and sentencing disparities?

Closed ended: Is the existing crime and sentencing disparities fueled by socio-economic forces? (Yes or No).

Exploratory Research Open and Closed Ended Questions

Open ended: How does socio-economic status impact crimes?

Closed Ended: Is the society affected by crime disparity? (Yes or No).

Explanatory Research Open and Closed Ended Questions

Open ended: Mention some of the probable interventions that can be applied in controlling crime and sentencing disparity?

Closed ended: Is communal policing capable of lowering crime disparities and sentencing? (Yes or No).

References

Bachman, R., & Schutt, R. K. (2017). The Practice of Research in Criminology and Criminal Justice (6th Ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Blaikie, N. W. H. (2010). Designing social research: The logic of anticipation. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press.

Defining & measuring variables:  Descriptive & Explanatory Variables

In research, variables are described by the utilization of two features. In that, a variable refers to a feature that defines an individual, location, thought or a thing. On the other hand, variables are bound to change based on the entity. Descriptive variables are referred to the variables that are described without being related to anything specific. On the other hand, an explanatory investigation variable can best be described as an independent variable. This, therefore, implies that when a variable presented is an independent one it cannot be altered by other variables. This implies that while the descriptive variables are focused on the study’s question the explanatory variables provides an explanation for changes that might impact the variables. In this case, explanatory variables are utilized to justify inconsistency and in research, such variables are usually influenced by researchers.

An example of an explanatory variable that can apply in regard to Walden City is to develop new training sessions on the belief that officers are faced with anxiety and pressure when handling crimes. Experimental designs are in this case developed to test the capability of the previous and the fresh sessions. Participants are selected in random where the pressure and nervousness rates are measured for both sessions. Another example is when an experiment is conducted amid two strategies that seek to control crimes such as street patrol and community policing effectiveness. Given that descriptive variables are utilized to offer data summary an example would be to establish the anxiety rate among police officers when dealing with crimes. Another example is that descriptive variables can be utilized to examine officer’s knowledge regard to the criminal investigation. These examples qualify as descriptive variables because they provide explanations to the existing situations.

References

Bachman, R., & Schutt, R. K. (2017). The practice of research in criminology and criminal justice (6^th Ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Brown, S. C., Geiselman, P. J., Copeland, A. L., Gordon, C., & Richard-Eaglin, A. (2008). Reliability and validity of the personal wellness profile (PWP) questionnaire in African-American college women. Journal of Cultural Diversity, 15(4), 163-167.

Dantzker, M. L., Hunter, R. D., & Quinn, S. T. (2016). Research methods for criminology and criminal justice.

Probability & Non Probability Sampling

Non-probability types are convenience and purposive sampling. Convenience sampling is amongst the most utilized sampling strategies. In this case, the population or subjects are mainly categorized on the basis of convenience. This implies that the utilized sample is the one that is easily accessed by the researcher (Bachman & Schutt, 2017). In this case, it can be said that the sample is an unintentional one. On the other hand, the purposive sample refers to the non-illustrative section of the general population that is mainly constructed to serving specific purposes and needs. In this context, the investigator has a specified populace in mind that suits the subject being addressed (Bachman & Schutt, 2017). Both sampling techniques are pertinent in both qualitative and measurable subjects despite that convenience samples are often utilized in quantitative research. 

In regard to probability sampling Simple Random and Systematic sampling are the techniques that offer the basis for complex selection strategies. The simple random involves random selection of subjects from a specified populace while every subject holds similar possibilities of being selected (Daniel, 2012). On the other hand, systematic sampling incorporates the selection of subjects from a specified or organized populace with the utilization of interval or skipping techniques. Systematic samples are easy to implement despite the fact that they are influenced by biases which might generate inaccuracy. The two ethical considerations that might influence sampling techniques are accuracy and dependability. In that biases is not encouraged at any given period which therefore implies that accuracy is necessary for the conclusions to be grounded as reliable (Daniel, 2012). In addition, confidentiality matters much which works to ensure that the respondent’s views are guarded a strategy that promotes truthiness.

References

Bachman, R., & Schutt, R. K. (2017). The practice of research in criminology and criminal justice (6th Ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Daniel, J. (2012). Sampling essentials: Practical guidelines for making sampling choices. Los Angeles [Calif.: SAGE.

            Measuring Variables

Differences between Measurement and Observation

Observation and measurement research are classified as the major investigation types in regard to research. The primary distinction amid the two lies on the manner in which scrutiny is conducted. In regard to measurement, the researcher normally engages in several experiments without making any kind of observations on the other hand observation involves making direct observations in order to develop an informed conclusion (Bachman & Schutt, 2017). On other words, observation includes all that can be observed. In regard to measurements, the researcher has the capability of manipulating all the aspects in regard to developing conclusions. However, in observational research experiments are conducted and the researcher mainly depends on the gathered information’s (Benz & Newman, 2008). In regard to measurements, observations are made via different evaluations.

Dissimilarities amid the Four Heights of Measurement

Nominal measurement mainly depends on categories and labels. In this context, the collected data at the nominal stage is usually qualitative. Given that the collected data in this context cannot be evaluated or organized in a useful way and therefore, there is no reason in calculating the associated subjects such as standard deviations (Benz & Newman, 2008). On the other hand, ordinal measurement implies that at this level it is easier to organize data but the distinctions about information are not very useful. Both in the nominal and the ordinary stage data should not be utilized for calculations. This differs with interval measurement that is mainly grounded on organized data and the distinctions amid the acquired information is treated as important given that it offers reasonability (Bachman & Schutt, 2017). However, at this stage data is not characterized by any central point. This implies that within the level data can be utilized in regard to calculations, however comparing the data is not associated with any kind of assessment (Benz & Newman, 2008). Ration measurement is the highest measurement stage and in this context, data is utilized in developing conclusions (Benz & Newman, 2008). The acquired data can be separated to develop an organized structure.

The Importance of Understanding Measurement Levels In Relation To Study Variables

Measurement levels can best be described as the association amid the assigned values to the variable features. First, understanding the measurement height is useful in deciding the manner in which the acquired information can be interpreted (Bachman & Schutt, 2017). Understanding that the procedures are nominal helps to interpret the general implication of the unorganized data. In addition, understanding the measurement height assist in making decisions in regard to the statistical evaluation to utilize that suits the set concepts (Bachman & Schutt, 2017). More so, this helps in establishing the actual implication of the data.

Techniques Can Be Utilized To Improve the Validity and Reliability of Variable Measurement

Reliability can be utilized to refer to the dependability of information. On the other hand, validity is the rationality acquired from any given information (Withrow, 2013). This, therefore, implies that both cannot be acquired without the availability of consistency. In improving rationality and reliability there are several strategies that can be applied which in turn improves the general accuracy of the investigation. First controlled examinations can be utilized in controlling the general association amid the performed investigation. In addition, sample sizes can be utilized in ensuring that the study does not divert from the set objective (Withrow, 2013). This helps in setting a straight direction which in turn develops dependable and precise conclusions that are relevant to the subject.

References

Benz, C. R., & Newman, I. (2008). Mixed methods research: Exploring the interactive continuum.             Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press.

Bachman, R., & Schutt, R. K. (2017). The practice of research in criminology and criminal justice (6^th Ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Brian L. Withrow. (2013). Research Methods in Crime and Justice. Rutledge.

Research Designs: Experimental and Descriptive Research Designs

Experimental design permits the researcher to examine the designed hypothesis by developing conclusions in regard to the association amid reliant and independent variables. In other words, it is a theoretical framework within which trials are performed. On the other hand, descriptive design refers to a study that is developed to represent the respondents in a reliable manner (Dantzker, Hunter & Quinn, 2016). In this case, data is gathered through several means such as observation, consultations, case studies or questionnaire filling. Both designs are associated with several advantages as well as limitations in regard to research.

Experimental design is beneficial because it offers insights on the best strategy to approach a given population. In addition, the researcher possesses full control in regard to the existing variables which increase the capability of the study to be relevant, dependable and accurate. However, this design is a major subject to individual’s faults and the individual discernment can affect the conclusions (Kraemer, Fleck & Deschenes, 2012). More so, the design makes it easy to develop artificial findings and the utilized groups are not comparable in most cases. The descriptive design differs because it involves the direct gathering of data from the selected populace. In this context, the respondents or the subject is observed within a constant surrounding without affecting the common conducts (Kraemer, Fleck & Deschenes, 2012). In addition, the method of gathering information normally promotes in-depth examinations. When gathered in large scopes they lead to the development of wealthy data given that they can accommodate qualitative or even measurable methods. However, the design has its limitations because the respondents might not be honest thus resulting in inaccuracy (Bachman & Schutt, 2017). In addition, the researcher discernment plays a critical part while confidentiality can be a major issue. The potent research topic that both designs might be applicable is the original source of sentencing inconsistency in regard to crimes. This is because the topic is accurate when experiments or observational data is utilized.

References

Bachman, R., & Schutt, R. K. (2017). The practice of research in criminology and criminal justice (6^th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Dantzker, M. L., Hunter, R. D., & Quinn, S. T. (2016). Research methods for criminology and criminal justice.

Kraemer, W. J., Fleck, S. J., & Deschenes, M. R. (2012). Exercise physiology: Integrated from theory to practical applications. Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Health.

Human Right concepts & Applications. International perceptions of Human rights

Example of two different cultures in America is Latin America and Africans. U.S is a culturally diverse nation and the country is also termed as a ‘melting pot’ since various cultures have entered in America where they follow and maintain their traditions an customs, even though many have embraced the culture of American people (De Schutter, 2012). In the arena of human rights, public administrator meets some challenges in dealing with ethics and codes of conducts in different cultures. It is important to note that ethics initiates is influenced by different cultural dimensions and public administers require a high level of moral reasoning before commencing moral actions. Moral philosophies and ethical decisions are fundamental elements in cultural difference since the diverse cultures creates behavior variations which are rooted from set of cultural values.  In addressing issues related with human right, public administrator meet some challenges rooted from social variation. Note that a public administer has an ethical obligation in ensuring that human rights is applicable to all cultural values (De Schutter, 2012).  For example, a public administrator is expected to have an individualism view-determine whether a particular decision aligns with self-interest, moral-rights view-determine whether the decision aligns with human rights, utilitarian view-determine whether the decision focus on doing good and justice view-determine whether the decision promotes fairness. In addition, the administered considers cultural relativism which states that all cultures are equal. A public administrator   is expected to prohibit historical practices with specific cultures, and which violates the rights of human beings.  For example, female genital mutilation is a historical practice which violets rights of modern girls. There is an ethical obligation to act in accordance with codes of ethics but the practice of implementing ethics is hindered by cultural relativism which states that cultural diversity embraces different perspectives (De Schutter, 2012).

 Both government and nongovernmental organization should implement strategies in addressing the issues affecting ethical concerns and implication of human rights to different cultures. First, they should use the approach of dialogue between cultures. This means that in providing human rights, it is not mandatory to focus on universal idea but rather there should be pluralism of cultures   which will eliminate the hegemonic ambitions and cultural misconceptions (De Schutter, 2012). In addition, it is important to rethink about the concepts of human rights with respect to the varied traditions. Other approach is that cultural relativism should be modified to eliminate the strong beliefs on traditional values of culture (De Schutter, 2012).

Reference

De Schutter, O. (2012). The role of human rights in shaping international regulatory regimes. Social

Research, 79(4), 785–818.

Twiss, S. B. (2011). Global ethics and human rights: A reflection. Journal of Religious Ethics, 39(2), 204–

222.

Hunger and Poverty in the World

Hunger and poverty in the U.S is majorly attributed to the high living standards, which makes it hard for low income earners to be able to cater for their needs. In addition, due to high literacy levels in the country, competition for jobs has made it hard for most people to be able to acquire good paying jobs, hence ending up being poor, a factor which results into hunger (NISHA, KUMAR & RAJ, 2016). On the other hand, in developing countries such as India, hunger and poverty has been mainly attributed to low living standards, and the lack of jobs for a very huge population. In India, the literate, and the learned tend to get good jobs, thus being able to escape from poverty. This is in contrary to the types of lives which the poor in the US lead, since most of the poor people in the US might have very high levels of education, they might have also served in the best institutions in the country, however, due to the high living standards, it makes it hard for them to be able to cater for their own needs such as food, water, and shelter.

Hunger and poverty in the US is nonetheless similar to hunger and poverty in developing countries. This is basically because the poor tend to pass through the same challenges in both countries, even though both countries are in different levels of development (Toppo, 2017). In US, as well as in India, the poor end up becoming beggars, whereby they ask for money well-wishers in order to cater for their needs. In addition, due to poverty and hunger, most of these people end up breaking the law in order to cater for their needs. Furthermore, the poverty levels have affected the type of education which the children of the poor receive in both countries.   

Reference

NISHA, DEEPIKA, KUMAR, R., & RAJ, L. (2016). POVERTY IN INDIA: A CONTROVERSIAL APPROACH AND METHODOLOGY OF EXPERT GROUPS. CLEAR International Journal Of Research In Commerce & Management, 7(7), 56-61.

Toppo, G. (2017). Hunger struggle grows worse for some in USA. USA Today.