Abortion and Gender Inequalities

Introduction

Abortion is the act of terminating a pregnancy, and it may therefore be intended or unintended. Induced abortion or intended abortion, is an abortion carried out by an expectant woman due to her own reasons. On the other hand, unintended abortion is the loss of pregnancy through miscarriage. Medical practitioners can therefore help in conducting an abortion. For example, the NHS which are the only hospitals licensed to carry out abortion. There are only three major ways of carrying out abortion in which the first one is to visit a contraception center or a sexual health hospital (Lurie, 2004). The second option is to seek a referral from an authorized body for abortion services if the need arises. The third and last option is to get in touch with an abortion provider directly through phone calls or text messages so that you can be advised the way forward. On the other side gender equality is the ability to access Facilities and exploit the possible chances freely independent of whether you are a male or a female.

Relationship of Abortion to Gender (In)Equality

Approximately 45 million women terminate their pregnancy per year in the world. The rate of abortion steeply rose from 1994, but it later dropped since the 1980s. Since abortion began, it is always blamed on the women who terminates their pregnancy. In the US, most of the women feel like the state is adopting a restrictive abortion administration because of the recently proposed penalties against abortion (frost, & dodoo, 2009). Men in the United States are really in great support of pro-life movement as oppose to the few women who are part of the pro-life movement.

It is cumulatively estimated that almost 45 million women abort yearly in the world regardless of whether it is an authorized or unauthorized abortion. Studies show that the European countries are somehow strict that the United States because of the unbearable penalties enforced in the European nations (Altiok, 2013). The severity of the abortion penalties differs from country to country though they are aimed at torturing women, lowering their dignity, increasing the cost and hindering the women accessibility to abortion services.

Race and Class Inequalities in the United States

There are different races and classes in the United States facing various forms of inequalities regarding power, life opportunities, and wealth. The rate of abortion in the United States is somehow dependent on the race and class inequalities. Demographic studies in the United States show that the number of black women terminating their pregnancy per year is four times more than the white women aborting their babies (Mead, & Irish, 2016). The rate of abortion in the United States is inversely proportional to the class levels in the United States in that the low living class is the leading followed by the middle class and lastly the high-class women who are rare to get involved in abortion issues. The issue of poverty, which consequently affects African American women tends to limit them from being able to access birth control pills. Moreover, due to poverty, most African American girls tend to indulge in sexual activities in order to be able to cater for their needs, hence ending up pregnant.

The main issue facing African American women is the lack of birth control pills. This therefore makes it hard for them to be able to control their birth, hence opting to conduct an abortion. Moreover, the issue of poverty affects their studies, making most teenagers to drop out of schools, a move which consequently makes them to indulge in sexual practices hence leading to unwanted pregnancies. The abuse of drugs is also prevalent among the African Americans as compared to the whites, a move which consequently makes most teenagers to indulge in sexual activities which result in pregnancies.

 An organization such as the issue4life company is so much dedicated to fighting abortion in the United States (Morris, 2014). Their goal mainly is to save the life of the innocent black American babies aborted every year in the United States. The organization claims that planned parenthood federation of America plus other pro-choicers are the people responsible for the increasing number of abortion among the black women in the United States of America. A case study carried out in 2004 on women population in the United States revealed that white women are about 35%, Hispanic 21%blacks 10% and the remaining 34% represent the other women. However, the analysis for abortion showed that the black women who represent the minority are the leading. Programs such as the Obamacare in the United States assists in creating public awareness about the impacts of abortion, especially through social media.

Global Inequalities

Reproductive justice broadly analyses, interprets, and protects the rights accompanied by abortion. It is a body that positively handles the reproductive health factors and abortion-related issues concerning women’s health to create and maintain their wellbeing. The body tries to understand the relationship between abortion, racism, and class in details so that it can get the relevant information which can assist in defending the abortion rights as well as to maintain the wellbeing of women and the girl child (Altiok, 2013. The organization categorizes the human rights into eight groups though the one associated with abortion is the sexual rights. Sexual rights protect abortion in that it argues on the fact that it is an individual’s decision to give birth or not, to decide to marry or not to marry.

Family planning programs are mostly working with women compared to men who are always ignorant to learn more about family planning. International family planning programs have been merged with medical and health programs to as to develop a more efficient medication that can be used to terminate the pregnancy as per the specialist prescription. The government of various nations through the NHS hospitals have developed policies that govern abortion (Morris, 2014). NHS gives three ways of abortion but first, you must be above 18 years otherwise there should be a guardian or a parent. There is an option of directly communicating with authorized abortion providers such as the National unplanned pregnancy advisory service (NUPAS). Another option is to seek a referral to an abortion serves from a licensed authority. Lastly, one is advised to visit a genitourinary medicine center or a family planning center for further guidance and counseling before making critical decisions that can haunt or lead to death. In conclusion, expectant women should frequently visit hospitals or guide and counseling centers to seek for advice especially if there are expecting their first born. The pro-lifers should also understand that at times abortion is done to save the mother`s life in case the doctor detects a medical complication that may hinder the successful birth process.

References

Altiok, O. (2013). Reproducing the Nation. Contexts, 12(2), 46-51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1536504213487698

frost, a., & dodoo, f. (2009). men are missing from african family planning. Contexts, 8(1), 44-49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/ctx.2009.8.1.44

Lurie, P. (2004). Undivided Rights: Women of Color Organize for Reproductive Justice. Journal Of Public Health Policy, 25(3-4), 448-449. http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jphp.3190043

Mead, M., & Irish, L. (2016). Spousal Influence on CPAP Adherence: Applications of Health-related Social Control. Social And Personality Psychology Compass, 10(8), 443-454. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12260

Morris, T. (2014). C-Section Epidemic. Contexts, 13(1), 70-72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1536504214522013

World Poverty

The world is a place where many people both of whom have their own beliefs. This therefore makes it hard for some people to be able to do things in a similar way as compared to others. The society shapes the culture and behaviors of human beings, it is therefore very hard to be able to convince a person to do something simply because according to the person, the things that he or she is doing, thinks they are actually right according to the dictates of his or her society. People from different countries would therefore conduct their activities differently according to their moral beliefs and dictates. On the other hand, human beings are created in such a way that they tend to love themselves more as compared to other people. A human being may therefore spend money carelessly guaranteed he or she made the money through hard work. The person may therefore not think about poor people and the sick who cannot be able to cater for their needs due to poverty.

According to Singer, most human beings are very quick to judge the actions of other people, forgetting that they, themselves are not as better as the people they are judging. For instance, in Dora’s story, Singer says that Dora’s actions may be similar to that of the rich American families which would spend their money on luxurious things other than helping the poor (Singer, n.p). Most people may therefore see the wrong in what Dora did, but justify what the rich American families are doing. Moreover, we as the people, may also judge Dora’s actions, when we have never even decided to donate money in order to save the poor. People are therefore focused on ways through which they can be able to enrich themselves, thus forgetting about the poor who are suffering.

In Bob’s story, Bob decides to save his car instead of saving the life of a child, when he had the total opportunity of saving the child’s life. Bob therefore represents the type of people who are determined to maintain their riches even though maintaining their riches may be the reason as to why most people tend to die in the world due to poverty and the lack of medical aid. Singer therefore advocates for people to offer their support to the needy, through sending money to overseas organizations which help in supporting the poor (Singer, n.p). Singer therefore wants each and every person to provide support to such organizations, and help them in being able to cater for the needs of the poor. We as human beings should therefore cut on our expenses, in order to be able to save the lives of the poor.

Singer’s solution is however different from Hardin’s, simply because, Hardin does not advocate for other people to support the needy. According to Hardin, people are supposed to prepare themselves in order to be able to solve their problems particularly in situations when things get out of hand. For instance, in the story of a lifeboat with a capacity of 60 people with 50 people on board, whereas one hundred people are in the ocean and they are asking for help. Hardin advises us not to allow anyone aboard the boat. This therefore means that each person should be able to cater for his or her needs regardless of where he or she is from (Hardin, n.p). This is so because, if we decide to allow ten people onto the boat, which criteria should we use to choose those who should board the boat. Secondly, if we allow everybody aboard the boat, then this means that the boat will capsize and all of us will drown in the ocean.

In the above scenario, Hardin therefore advocates for people to prepare themselves for the worst situations. This is because, if one offers to support the poor, which criteria will he or she use in order to be able to choose the number to support. In addition, if one therefore decides to support every person who is poor then it means that the person will end up being poor. Hardin also talks about the number of rich and poor countries in the world. Two thirds of the countries in the world are poor, whereas a third of them are rich (Hardin, n.p). Poor countries have not been able to control their population growth, moreover, they have not also been able to save food in case of drought. This therefore makes such countries to be vulnerable to problems, due to the lack of proper planning. On the other hand, rich countries have come up with population growth measures, which have enabled the countries to be able to maintain their population growth. In addition, they have also set aside caution money, hence being able to cater for their citizens in case of a disaster.

Singer’s solution and Hardin’s solutions are therefore very different, since both of the solutions are moving in separate directions. Hardin seems to be in total disagreement with Singer’s solution, as he says that if we decide to help the needy who constitute a huge population of the world, then we are likely to become as poor as them (Hardin, n.p). Singer on the other hand, believes that it is only we, who are in a better position to help the needy, thus we should be able to support them. This is because, if we decide to donate money, then we could be able to save many lives in the world.

According to my point of view, I believe that we are supposed to help the needy. This is consequently because it is not their choice to be in such a situation. For instance, a child who is born in a hunger stricken area, cannot be blamed for the lack of proper planning. This is consequently because the child found itself in such a situation after it was born. Moreover, some countries in the world have been hit by wars, for example in Syria, a country which does not have a stable government, its citizens cannot be able to live peacefully due to the frequent attacks that the country faces on a daily basis.

We are therefore supposed to support overseas organizations through donating the amounts of money that we can be able to afford. In addition, we are also supposed to minimize our spending in order to be able to help those who are suffering. Most people tend to earn so much money, that they would rather buy expensive cars which would end up being auctioned by the banks, due to the debts owed to the bank. We should therefore think of how we can better the lives of those who are suffering, hence making the world a better place.

Work Cited

Peter Singer. The Singer Solution to World Poverty. The New York Times. 1999.

Garrett Hardin. Lifeboat Ethics: the Case against Helping the Poor.

Have feminist movements contributed to elimination of domestic violence in Africa? Challenge to the Women's Rights

Introduction

Violence against women as discussed by feminists and the UN can be described as any act of gender known violence that harms women physically, sexually and emotionally that end up causing suffering to the lives of women. It is reported that large numbers of women and children go through domestic violence especially in Africa. Women go through different types of violence for example domestic violence, forced marriages, female genital mutilation, rape, gender based violence, human trafficking and different assaults. Women experience violence even by people they love and trust where many ended up dying in the hands of husbands, family members and lovers as well. Violence against women and girls not only in Africa causes suffering, pain and emotional problems that ends up causing trauma and death. Violence end up incurring high economic costs in terms of high judicial costs and loss of productivity among those affected. The governments in different countries globally spend much money in order to fight domestic violence and solve the violence cases. Feminist activists have come up in support of ending domestic violence but have not yet succeeded since many cases are reported in the African countries. Different laws and rules have come up in order to fight domestic violence in Africa though violence cases are still reported on daily basis. Preventing and ending up domestic violence needs much attention and finances which the African governments fail to give. Funding is a major problem to those organizations and feminist activists who fight against domestic violence. Most organizations need funding in order to deal with gender violence cases therefore governments in different countries need to fund the organizations.

Preventing gender based violence is one of the functions of the government as well as women’s rights associations. Some norms in most societies portray women as inferior people compared to men therefore posing a threat to the government and feminist efforts to combat domestic violence. World Health Organization (WHO) reported that domestic violence is a worldwide problem all over the globe. WHO, carried out a study in 2005 that showed how most women in Tanzania, Ethiopia and Kenya among other African countries have suffered from domestic violence and other types of violence [1]. Domestic violence worsens the health problems affecting women especially in the African countries. Intimate partners and husbands were reported to carry out domestic violence in form of beatings and other types of violence therefore subjecting women to traumas and devastating their health. Domestic violence is known to go beyond beatings. Violence takes place in different forms including forced marriages and female genital mutilation which takes place in most African countries. WHO, reports that female genital mutilation has been known to cause different problems amongst women [2]. Excessive bleeding and infections come along with the genital mutilation which eventually causes death to most African women who are forced to go through the harmful physical exercise.

The women’s movement and the United Nations

Violence against women came to prominence after many women organization globally pushed for the rights of women to be upheld. Women identified that men had dominated them and that they were not only viewed as inferior people but subjected to violence of all types. The women organizations pushed for gender equality and equity in order to eradicate cases of gender based violence [3]. The women organizations identified violence as one form of discrimination that needed to be addressed in the most efficient manner. The organizations identified different types of discrimination and violence and pushed for the governments to ensure the violence cases were handled with the seriousness they deserved. The organizations ensured that violence was handled as a serious issue since it had been ignore making many women suffer not only in Africa but globally. Looking at an international level, violence against women was addressed by the United Nations since it was an important issue that needed immediate action and prevention measures carried out. The women organizations had dealt with some violence such as women trafficking for prostitution therefore the UN came in support of what the women organizations had begun. The United Nations Decade for Women created awareness on the issue of violence against women and ensured most people understood on the issue and importance of fighting against the violence. United Nations supported the women organizations and ensured they monitored the progress on the fight against women violence globally. The World Plan Of Auction For Women supported the issue of violence against women by ensuring families came together where education programs were introduced in order to ensure family conflicts were resolved which would eventually cause violence.

During 1985 the violence against women issue was more prominent especially in the Third World Conference on Women in Nairobi which pushed for the rights of women to be respected [4]. The Nairobi Forward Looking for the Advancements of Women was concerned with women and recognized women who had been through domestic violence and other types of violence. The organization pushed for prevention of women violence which caused much trauma and to some extent death to the victims. The organization aimed at identified forward strategies that would ensure violence against women was dealt with and handled with the importance it deserved. The organization teamed up with the UN in ensuring violence against women was brought in to the light and preventive measures identified that would stop the violence. The forward strategies included legal measures in dealing with violence cases, preventive measures and policies, assistance to the victims and national machinery in order to ensure violence cases were combated [5]. The forward strategies also ensured public awareness was done in order to educate people on importance of preventing and stopping violence against women. The organization ensured that violence against women was handled in the right manner and that the public was made aware of the violence and consequences of the violence on the lives of women. The United Nations decade for women involved itself in handling violence criminal cases and ensuring those carrying out violence faced the law. The organization ensured that domestic violence was addressed and that appropriate laws and measures were put in place that would ensure domestic violence was stopped. The organization ensured that law enforcement was possible in dealing with domestic violence cases at the national levels in the African countries.

During early 1990s women organizations through various activists came up together and lobbied on the issue of violence and discrimination against women. The organizations came up together in support of women rights as part of the human rights. The women movements ensured they gained recognition through the media in support of fight against violence since many women had suffered as a result of domestic violence and other forms of violence and discrimination [6]. Lobbying for respect of women rights and fight against violence was steered by the World Conference on Human Rights which happened in Vienna during 1993. The conference ensured that women movements fought for the rights of women and fought against domestic violence and other forms of discrimination. Women lobbied globally and nationally as they fought against women violence and ensured the human rights laws identified women rights as part of the human rights laws. The women activists pushed for violence to be considered as violation of human rights and that people caught carrying out violence would face legal consequences in the courts of law. A global tribunal was created which would handle different violence cases from all countries globally as one way of combating violence against women. The conference ensured that violence would not be treated as a legal issue with those violating the laws facing legal consequences. The conference identified violence against women as one way of discrimination and ensured that preventive measures were identified which would ensure violence was dealt with in the right manner. In addition the human rights framework included women rights as part of the human rights meaning that women would no longer face discrimination and violence.

Protocols and Modern Treaties

The first African women rights framework that has been successful in benefiting millions of African women when ratified as well as the assurance of the governments is implemented in solving domestic violence 7.  In Africa women’s rights are in particular ignored, understated and compressed upon by the male gender. The women’s place is usually regarded as that position of not being heard as too much of the African culture is utilized in offering justification for the general denial of their rights. While each community within Africa is characterized with its own traditions that are well preserved some of these customs have proved to be quite harmful for women. These for instance includes property rights denial, early marriages, inheritance, FGM, wife’s beating just to mention a few.

The increased women’s rights violation in Africa generally necessitated the generation of an effective legal framework in which the definition of the female rights are well spelt with no mistake and advocates for the protection of this rights. Protocol to the African Charter on Human Rights and Peoples' Rights (ACHPR) which is universally known as Maputo Protocol was born in response for the specific need 8. This grew to be the fight legal rights women’s framework that offered a sort of protection to women’s rights across Africa.  The protocol was successful in the confrontation of domestic violence in Africa by offering descriptive details of the rights possessed by women.  The protocol was purposed for offering protection to the continuous abuse, women’s discrimination as well as their marginalization. It is apparent that through these the rights of women in Africa have been identified and guaranteed in all the given global instruments for human rights. It is therefore the obligation of the government in ensuring that all the practices that endangers the normal and psychological development of women are reduced so that women can enjoy their rights fully.

Despite the fact that domestic violence against women, harmful traditions as well as discrimination has not been eliminated fully the protocol conference made a significant transformation 9. UN treaties such as CEDAW is involved in the monitoring and the implementation of conventions regarding any kind of discrimination that is subjected against women. CEDAW particularly establishes the civic, oral as well as the political equality of the female gender and offers increased protection of their rights to be free from any kind of violence and discrimination and the treaty has been effective since the values have been distributed across the globe. CEDAW has additionally empowered some civic societal organizational demands by ensuring that human rights for women are respected and also adopts acts that limits domestic violence, sexual trafficking, workplace discrimination as well as child marriage.

Taking on domestic violence against women in Africa

Those who practice violence against women have had a bad past which either saw them growing up in violent homes and were subjected to violence and often are known to abuse drugs and alcohol. A study carried out by the UN Population Fund back in 2000 showed that men in some African countries had the right to beat their wives as one way of punishing them when they do wrong.  Men in Africa in some societies are given rights to intimidate and beat their women as one way of correcting them since men are viewed as superior people compared to women. A study carried out on domestic violence in Uganda carried out by the US Human Rights Watch found out that families were seen to justify widows to be remarried to other males in the same families as a tradition that allowed bride price to be fully utilized [7]. That tradition is practiced in most African countries where the widow is inherited by a male in the same family since it is argued that once bride price is paid the woman becomes a property of the family. The widow once inherited loses all her property to the new husband. In case a woman has divorced the husband, dowry is supposed to be reimbursed by the woman’s family.

African women suffer under the hands of men who assault them simply because men act as bread winners in the families. WHO, carried out a research and found out that women prefer living with husbands who batter and have been used to the routine of being assaulted because of the financial gains they get from men. Most women in Africa are house wives who carry out house chores and give birth as their main roles in the societies. The World Health Organization found that women in Africa who have at least secondary education are able to make wise decisions in their marriages and are able to decide whether they want to get married and who they should get married to. Education has been a major factor in fighting domestic violence from the research carried out since women are able to make decisions on their own [9]. Education has ensured that lower cases of violence are reported in African countries where women are given equal education opportunities with men. Educated women are able to make decisions and express themselves compared to those uneducated ones who view themselves as inferior compared to men. Women are not inferior compared to men thus need to be respected since they can carry out activities just like men can do. The level of education however is important since educated women are unlike uneducated ones who are easily manipulated by men and forced into activities they did not want. African countries need to endorse women education as one way of fighting against domestic violence and other forms of violence.

Security Reform as a Key to Protecting Women

Africa has been a victim of sexual conflict in countries at war for example sierra Leone, Liberia, Burundi , Democratic Republic of Congo and countries that are not at war in Africa for example Kenya and many more. Women are at the risk of rape and other forms of sexual harassment and victimization in Africa. In rare cases the police and other law enforcers take the crimes seriously if anything some of the policemen and soldiers especially in war zone areas are deemed among the abusers. Africa has found itself falling short of the responsibilities to protect women. In the willingness to safeguard women security institutions are taking steps to reform their ability in protection of women. One of the steps taken is that of cleaning out ranks by getting rid of personnel in guilty of abuse in the security forces. In Liberia for example, after a decade of civil war vetting panels were used to assess qualifications of applicants in the armed forces. The names and photos of interested parties were circulated to the public for criticizing. Any negative information disqualified a candidate and therefore he was rejected. Vetting process was also applied in DRC though women are still brutalized and the united nations associate it to the remnants of anti-government groups [10]. Another step taken has been training and staffing in the military and police personnel department. The question of women’s rights and gender based violence has been added to the police and military training programs. Though training does not have a great impact changes in the staffing has helped a deal. This is by recruiting and promoting more female figures in the security organs through gender balance when recruiting.

Kenya has been on the front line with gender equality debates in parliament while Liberia, which produced the first elected female president named Ellen Johnson-Sir Leaf, announced a goal of achieving military that would be twenty percent female. The main challenge to the aspect is that not many women applicants completed secondary education or obtained certificates from polytechnics locking them out. South Africa after a gender mainstreaming has been recruiting female troops and police since themid-1990s [11]. A third step is taking legal action by pursuing the criminals of sexual violence. Across Africa accessing justice by women remain limited reasons being weakness of courts which are usually situated in the big towns and urban areas with high court fees and corruption across the judiciary. New legal aids clinics have been established with also special units being set aside in countries like Liberia, Kenya, Sierra Leone and South Africa to deal with the offences related to sexual harassment. These units provide training programs for magistrates and also offers free legal advice to victims, arranges protection for witnesses. Another vocal step has been breaking the silence about sexual harassment by women’s organizations that expose the people behind the acts. Violence against women cannot be curbed by security institutions on their own because wide tolerance of abuses happens in the family which are private spaces. In Sierra Leone for example studies show that most women who qualified for the army and police were ordered not to join by their husbands.  Grass root action in schools, churches, market places and public venues is vital by breaking the silence for women to speak out.

Economic Inequalities and Violence against Women

Women are making an invaluable contribution to the economy through their paid and unpaid labor everywhere. Despite that, women have a high representation in the 70 percent of people living in poverty in countries for example Nigeria. African women are denied the same kind of economical privileges that men enjoy. Women loose out in education, work and health sectors. Their work is invisible in most cases or even worse poorly paid. Economic inequalities can therefore be a casual factor leading to violence against women at individual levels or economic trends that create enabling conditions for the violence [14]. Violence and economic inequalities are twin injustices that women experience in Africa. Women economic inequalities and discrimination in areas like employment, income and access to resources increases the risks of violence due to less capacity in decision making. The lack of economic empowerment for women is reflected in lack of access to economic resources like land, personal property and wages which place them at the lime light of violence. Economic independence may not shield women from violence but access to resources can enhance women’s capacity to make choices that include escaping violent scenarios and accessing protection against situations of violence. Most national governments aim at economic restructuring in order to help promote and ensure women’s equality socially and economically through public sectors programs and social spending [15]. Gender changes in the economy can be argued as an important factor in prevention of violence against women. Women should be given a platform to get the significant economic resources in order to help reduce the odds of intimate partner violence.  Effort should be made in development of both economic and violence prevention policies to combat violence against women.

Forms and manifestations of violence against women in various settings

Violence against women has been reported and documented by different bodies such as the UN, different media houses and organizations that have received violence cases. Acts of violence against women are well documented since violence cases continue to be reported especially in African countries. Violence against women may be initiated by the family, the state and the general community. The Beijing platform for action and the declaration on elimination of violence against women are known to address violence against women [16]. Most form of violence against women occurs in more than one setting for instance where harmful traditions cause the violence while they are supported by the community and family but are against the state laws. Women’s trafficking is one form of violence against women that involves family, community, state and even crosses to the international boundaries. Women face violence in different settings since family, state, community and other bodies are involved. Violence against women takes place within the family and the most identified violence types include battering, sexual abuse, marital rape, female genital mutilation, sexual abuse in small girls, early and forced marriages among young girls, violence against domestic workers and other different forms of exploitation and discrimination [17].

Most women are physically and sexually abused by their intimate partners and husbands. Most women are abused by men who abuse alcohol and drugs as research carried out has found out. Women are subjected to domestic violence such as economic and psychological violence. Some men deny women access to express themselves and control basic resources yet women in Africa take care of domestic chores. WHO reports that Ethiopia, Namibia and Tanzania lead in domestic violence cases in Africa while Japan and Thailand outside Africa [18]. Severe domestic violence eventually causes death to the victims where most untimely deaths amongst women are caused by the violence. World Health Organization in its research found out that some women are exposed to emotional abuse where men treat them as inferior people who are weak and are not able to express themselves. Most women especially in Egypt are subjected to emotional abuse whereby men control all the activities and impose authority on the women failure to which battering takes place. Most women are seen to persevere to the abuse since they are not able to report since the community and family endorses some forms of the domestic violence. Some women go through verbal abuse where they are insulted by men therefore end up suffering from traumas.

Harmful traditional practices

Harmful traditions are practices supported by the community and family that end up causing discrimination and violence against women. Female genital mutilation, early and forced marriages and inciting widows to commit suicide are examples of harmful traditional practices that cause violence against women [19]. Some practices such dietary restrictions amongst the pregnancy women and wife inheritance, are examples of harmful traditional practices that violate the rights of women. In the African counties as well as Middle East countries it is estimated that most women have undergone through female genital mutilation which is a part of the traditional practices. The practice is common among the immigrant communities especially in Europe and North America. Guinea is the leading African countries in practicing female genital mutilation followed by Egypt, Ethiopia, Benin, Ghana, Niger and other African countries. Women’s group, organizations and movements have been fighting this harmful practice since it has negative consequences on the lives of women. The women organizations have almost succeeded in ending this practice though some communities still subject their young girls to this harmful practice which is being fought by most feminists [20]. Higher education status among women has ensured that the harmful practice is done away with since women are able to understand the negative consequences female genital mutilation has on their lives. Early marriages also impact negatively on the lives of women since it affects health of young girls since they are not strong to handle pregnancy and hard domestic chores

Advocacy and campaigns

Advocacy efforts and campaigns used to expose unacceptable violence against women continue taking place and ensure violence against women is stopped. Women organizations and movements ensure women are made aware of their rights and educated on measures of reporting those who violate their rights [21]. The campaigns are initiatives of women movements who push the government to ensure that women are respected and that preventive measures are put in place in order to combat violence against women. The women movements have succeeded in airing out the grievances of women since research shows that domestic violence cases being reported are on the decline. The women movements have ensured that women are educated on their rights and are taught on how to express their ideas since they are not inferior people compared to men [22]. The women movements ensure that they campaigns and advocate for the rights of women through carrying out demonstrations in the streets and using the media inclusive of televisions, print and social media. In 1998 a Tanzanian NGO known as the Tanzanian Media Women’s Association came up with a campaign against female genital mutilation through promoting enactment of the Sexual Offences Special Provision Act. The NGO teamed up together with other organizations in the fight against female genital mutilation which had claimed lives of young girls in the country. The campaign involved use of magazines, televisions and radio programs and social surveys which all aimed at educating women on the negative consequences of female genital mutilation. Theater artists and media personnel were involved in the fight against this harmful tradition [23]. The NGO provided educational materials to the public and created a website that provided more information on female genital mutilation.

Feminist movements have ensured they mobilize the communities as one strategy in prevention and fight of domestic violence. The women groups ensure they join together with the local leaders and other NGOs in the fight against domestic violence and other types of violence. Raising Voice is a women group organization which fights against women violence either by police, community and husbands in Kampala [24]. The women group ensures women rights are respected as part of human rights through carrying out various campaigns and demonstrations which support prevention of domestic violence. In Egypt the women groups ensured they mobilized the community through the religious leaders who then taught people the adverse effects of FGM since it was a common practice that claimed lives of people. The women group succeeded in the fight against FGM in Egypt since men agreed they would not marry circumcised and young girls. The religious leaders played important roles in convincing the people on the negative effects of FGM and early forced marriages as well. The women groups made people understand thus parents agreed not to subject their daughters to the harmful practice of circumcision as well as forcing them to get married at their early ages [25]. The women group ensured that those people who performed the FGM on girls stopped the exercise since they educated them on the harm the exercise causes to the young girls. The people who practiced the exercise vowed to end their work and instead focus on other useful activities that would not result ton early deaths.

Women groups for them to succeed in ending domestic violence and other forms of violence worked together with men. The groups would not be successful if they failed to involve the men.  Women groups ensured men worked in support of women leadership in the communities since earlier on leadership positions were entirely entitled to men. Women groups used various strategies in ensuring men were engaged in prevention measures based on fight against gender violence. Men organizations which were and still used in fight against gender violence include the military, men sports team, the police and trade unions as well [26]. The women groups performed campaigns that ensured male role models were used to educate other people on the importance of ending violence against women. The White Ribbon Campaign is one of the campaigns that encourage men and young boys in ensuring they fight against domestic violence as well as other forms of violence. The campaign started in Canada and has spread over 45 African countries where men are asked not to remain silent on the issue of domestic violence against women. The women organizations ensured they use the media and technology in fighting against women violence. The women organizations through the media taught people on the quality of reporting violence cases and increased awareness on the general public on causes and intended consequences of violence against women. Women were asked to report violence cases to the police since violence is a violation of women rights which are part of the human rights. The media was used since it would reach wide ranges of people thus ensure the women groups succeed in the fight against domestic violence. For instance the women groups used music videos in creating awareness on the issue of violence against women.

Women groups have used mass media, print media and social media in ensuring they fight against gender violence. The women groups have succeeded since through use of the internet information reaches wide ranges of people. Through use of the media women groups have promoted public safety in ensuring the issue of violence against women is discussed [27]. Through discussing the issue people are able to come up with ideas and solutions to the violence which is a global concern. The women groups urge women to remain open and discuss their problems in order to get solutions. Most women suffer domestic violence in silence since they fear opening up. Women are currently enrolled in schools and this has reduced chances of them getting violated. Women now go to school thus know their rights since the women organizations pushed for women to enroll themselves in schools. The girl child currently is educated unlike in the past therefore understanding the rights they are subjected to [28]. Through education women are able to understand that they are equal compared to men and that they are not inferior. Education has been an important factor in ensuring domestic violence is stopped amongst women. Educated women are respected by men therefore are not subjected to violence since they cannot remain silent compared to those who are not educated.

Conclusion

As this study has shown violence against women has been a global concern thus has not affected African countries alone. Domestic violence has been seen to affect many women physically and emotionally subjecting women to traumas and early deaths. Domestic violence is harmful to the lives of women and is a violation of women’s rights which are human rights. This study shows how women movements have been useful in ensuring domestic violence is eradicated though they have faced different challenges. Domestic violence cases are still reported not only in African countries but globally as well regardless of the preventive measures put in place by different states and women groups. Despite different efforts by the women groups, domestic violence still takes place and possess as a threat to many lives in women especially those living in Africa. The United Nations has joined women organizations in ensuring violence is eradicated not only in Africa but globally as well. The UN has been involved in ensuring domestic violence as well as other forms of violence are addressed and solutions to the problem identified. More strategies need to be put in place thus women organizations need more funds in order to fight against women violence.

Promoting gender equality and ending domestic violence should not be treated as an option but should be given priorities since it claims lives of innocent women, children and young girls. The issue not only needs attention from the women groups but also attention from the national, regional, local and international levels. Women groups have come up in support of women rights and fight against domestic violence and other types of discrimination and exploitation. Women organizations and movements ensure women are made aware of their rights and educated on measures of reporting those who violate their rights. The campaigns are initiatives of women movements who push the government to ensure that women are respected and that preventive measures are put in place in order to combat violence against women. Looking at an international level, violence against women was addressed by the United Nations since it was an important issue that needed immediate action and prevention measures carried out. The women organizations had dealt with some violence such as women trafficking for prostitution therefore the UN came in support of what the women organizations had begun. Violence against women has been reported and documented by different bodies such as the UN, different media houses and organizations that have received violence cases. Most women are seen to persevere to the abuse since they are not able to report since the community and family endorses some forms of the domestic violence. Some women go through verbal abuse where they are insulted by men therefore end up suffering from traumas. Therefore domestic violence needs to be addressed further so that it can be eradicated fully.

References

Burrill, Emily, Richard L. Roberts, and Elizabeth Thornberry. Domestic Violence and the Law in Colonial and Postcolonial Africa. Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press, 2010. Print

Fallon, Kathleen M. Democracy and the Rise of Women's Movements in Sub-Saharan Africa. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2008. Internet resource.

Forsythe, David P. Encyclopedia of Human Rights. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009. Print.

Forsythe, David P. Human Rights and Diversity: Area Studies Revisited. Lincoln [u.a.: Univ. of Nebraska Press, 2003. Print.

Franda, Marcus F. The United Nations in the Twenty-First Century: Management and Reform Processes in a Troubled Organization. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 2006.

Goetz, Anne M, and Shireen Hassim. No Shortcuts to Power: African Women in Politics and Policy Making. London: Zed Books, 2003. Print.

Halder, Debarati, and K Jaishankar. Therapeutic Jurisprudence and Overcoming Violence against Women. , 2017. Internet resource.

Hampton, Robert L, Thomas P. Gullotta, and Jessica M. Ramos. Interpersonal Violence in the African American Community: Evidence-based Prevention and Treatment Practices. New York: Springer, 2006. Internet resource.

Harway, Michèle, and James M. O'Neil. What Causes Men's Violence against Women?Thousand Oaks, Calif: Sage Publications, 1999. Print.

Hudson, Valerie M. Sex and World Peace. New York: Columbia University Press, 2012.

Johnson, Holly, Natalia Ollus, and Sami Nevala. Violence against Women: An International Perspective. New York: Springer, 2007. Print.

Joseph, Suad, and Afsaneh Najmabadi. Encyclopedia of Women & Islamic Cultures: Vol. 2. Leiden: Brill, 2005. Print.

Juang, Richard M, and Noelle Morrissette. Africa and the Americas: Culture, Politics, and History : a Multidisciplinary Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, Calif: ABC-CLIO, 2008. Print.

Lucas, Linda E. Unpacking Globalization: Markets, Gender, and Work. Lanham: Lexington Books, 2007. Internet resource.

Lundberg-Love, Paula K, and Shelly L. Marmion. "intimate" Violence against Women: When Spouses, Partners, or Lovers Attack. Westport, Conn: Praeger, 2006. Print.

Martin, Phyllis M, and Patrick O'Meara. Africa. Bloomington [u.a.: Iniana Univ.-Pr, 1995. Print

Mibenge, Chiseche S. Sex and International Tribunals: The Erasure of Gender from the War Narrative. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2013. Internet resource.

Nowrojee, Binaifer, and Bronwen Manby. Violence against Women in South Africa: The State Response to Domestic Violence and Rape. New York: Human Rights Watch, 1995. Print.

Nowrojee, Binaifer, and Bronwen Manby. Violence against Women in South Africa: The State Response to Domestic Violence and Rape. New York: Human Rights Watch, 1995. Print.

Packer, Corinne A. A. Using Human Rights to Change Tradition: Traditional Practices Harmful to Women's Reproductive Health in Sub-Saharan Africa. Antwerpen [u.a.: Intersentia, 2002. Print.

Ross, Susan D. Women's Human Rights: The International and Comparative Law Casebook. , 2008. Internet resource.

Rwomire, Apollo. African Women and Children: Crisis and Response. Westport, Conn. [u.a.: Praeger, 2001. Print.

Sadik, Nafis. An Agenda for People: The Unfpa Through Three Decades. New York: New York University Press, 2002. Print.

Sadiqi, Fatima. Women's Movements in Post-"arab Spring" North Africa. , 2016. Internet resource.

Smith, Bonnie G. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Women in World History. Oxford [England: Oxford University Press, 2008. Print.

Sokoloff, Natalie J. Domestic Violence at the Margins: Readings on Race, Class, Gender, and Culture. Piscataway, N.J: Rutgers University Press, 2005. Print.

Sweetman, Caroline. Violence against Women. Oxford: Oxfam GB, 2004. Print.

Tobin, John. The Right to Health in International Law. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012. Print.

Tripp, Aili M. Women's Mobilizations in Africa. Place of publication not identified: Zed Books Ltd, 2017. Print.

[1] Smith, Bonnie G. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Women in World History. Oxford [England: Oxford University Press, 2008. Print.

[2] Sadiqi, Fatima. Women's Movements in Post-"arab Spring" North Africa. , 2016. Internet resource.

[3] Sokoloff, Natalie J. Domestic Violence at the Margins: Readings on Race, Class, Gender, and Culture. Piscataway, N.J: Rutgers University Press, 2005. Print.

[4] Nowrojee, Binaifer, and Bronwen Manby. Violence against Women in South Africa: The State Response to Domestic Violence and Rape. New York: Human Rights Watch, 1995. Print.

[5] Martin, Phyllis M, and Patrick O'Meara. Africa. Bloomington [u.a.: Iniana Univ.-Pr, 1995. Print

[6] Joseph, Suad, and Afsaneh Najmabadi. Encyclopedia of Women & Islamic Cultures: Vol. 2. Leiden: Brill, 2005. Print.

[7] Forsythe, David P. Encyclopedia of Human Rights. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009. Print.

Sadik, Nafis. An Agenda for People: The Unfpa Through Three Decades. New York: New York University Press, 2002. Print.

[8] Sadik, Nafis. An Agenda for People: The Unfpa Through Three Decades. New York: New York University Press, 2002. Print.

[9] Sadik, Nafis. An Agenda for People: The Unfpa Through Three Decades. New York: New York University Press, 2002. Print.

[10] Burrill, Emily, Richard L. Roberts, and Elizabeth Thornberry. Domestic Violence and the Law in Colonial and Postcolonial Africa. Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press, 2010. Print

[11] Fallon, Kathleen M. Democracy and the Rise of Women's Movements in Sub-Saharan Africa. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2008. Internet resource.

[12] Nowrojee, Binaifer, and Bronwen Manby. Violence against Women in South Africa: The State Response to Domestic Violence and Rape. New York: Human Rights Watch, 1995. Print.

[13] Tripp, Aili M. Women's Mobilizations in Africa. Place of publication not identified: Zed Books Ltd, 2017. Print.

[14] Ross, Susan D. Women's Human Rights: The International and Comparative Law Casebook. , 2008. Internet resource.

[15] Goetz, Anne M, and Shireen Hassim. No Shortcuts to Power: African Women in Politics and Policy Making. London: Zed Books, 2003. Print.

[16] Lucas, Linda E. Unpacking Globalization: Markets, Gender, and Work. Lanham: Lexington Books, 2007. Internet resource.

[17] Juang, Richard M, and Noelle Morrissette. Africa and the Americas: Culture, Politics, and History : a Multidisciplinary Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, Calif: ABC-CLIO, 2008. Print.

[18] Sweetman, Caroline. Violence against Women. Oxford: Oxfam GB, 2004. Print.

[19] Rwomire, Apollo. African Women and Children: Crisis and Response. Westport, Conn. [u.a.: Praeger, 2001. Print.

[20] Johnson, Holly, Natalia Ollus, and Sami Nevala. Violence against Women: An International Perspective. New York: Springer, 2007. Print.

[21] Harway, Michèle, and James M. O'Neil. What Causes Men's Violence against Women?Thousand Oaks, Calif: Sage Publications, 1999. Print.

[22] Lundberg-Love, Paula K, and Shelly L. Marmion. "intimate" Violence against Women: When Spouses, Partners, or Lovers Attack. Westport, Conn: Praeger, 2006. Print.

[23] Hampton, Robert L, Thomas P. Gullotta, and Jessica M. Ramos. Interpersonal Violence in the African American Community: Evidence-based Prevention and Treatment Practices. New York: Springer, 2006. Internet resource.

[24] Packer, Corinne A. A. Using Human Rights to Change Tradition: Traditional Practices Harmful to Women's Reproductive Health in Sub-Saharan Africa. Antwerpen [u.a.: Intersentia, 2002. Print.

[25] Halder, Debarati, and K Jaishankar. Therapeutic Jurisprudence and Overcoming Violence against Women. , 2017. Internet resource.

[26] Mibenge, Chiseche S. Sex and International Tribunals: The Erasure of Gender from the War Narrative. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2013. Internet resource.

[27] Forsythe, David P. Human Rights and Diversity: Area Studies Revisited. Lincoln [u.a.: Univ. of Nebraska Press, 2003. Print.

[28] Tobin, John. The Right to Health in International Law. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012. Print.

Video games

Video Games have a negative effect on people

 Video games are form of entertainment which is valued by both children and adult.  However, many videogames are associated with hyper-realistic violence and this affects the actual behavior.  In 21^st century, violence in video games is an issue of concern as numerous studies have confirmed that video games with violent images increase psychological aggression.  Cunningham et al (1249) used a quasi-experimental methodology in examining how violent games cause aggression. An evidence is reported by Uniform Crime Report from 2005-2011.  The finding shows that first, video games are highly demanded by adolescents and adults.  This is an indication that they spend most the time playing games rather than in social activities.  The violent content increases violence and the players engage themselves in aggressive behaviors such as school shooting. Other important point is that the video games have low social cost which young people can afford.  When young people are regularly exposed to violent video games, they develop a biased belief and make the assumption that they live in danger (Cunningham et al, 261). The aggressive behavior is well explained by theoretical mechanisms such as aggression. The aggression mechanism is supported by ‘general aggression model’ which states that video games increase aggressive behavior because, the player develops mental scripts which leads to reasoning biases. This means that the player is able to interpret the social situation and jump into conclusion even before the occurrence of violent act (Cunningham et al, 1204). Other theoretical mechanism which supports the video game negative effect is incapacitation which is supported by economic theory. The two claim that many violent games have complicated plot and take a lot of time. This means that young people spend most of the time on video games and   use less time in recreational activities. The higher exposure to violence affects their actual behavior and school performance. Rather than studying, they feel interested in performing the violence in real world.

 A study conducted by Bajovic confirmed that violent video games affect the moral reasoning (Bajovic, 178).  In the study, participants were 109 adolescents and data was collected through questionnaire. The purpose of questionnaire was to examine the adolescents’ preferences, habits, pattern, values and beliefs on video games, and how the effect is associated with sociomoral reasoning (Bajovic, 182). Majority stated that they like playing video games as they spend 1-3 playing vide on daily basis. They also stated that they like playing games with human violence such as Call of Duty series, Super Marion series and more ((Bajovic, 187). The study on these findings showed that adolescents’ moral reasoning skills are affected. The majority of students who spend a lot of time in violent video games were associated with low social moral maturity (Bajovic, 187). This is not caused by the fact that children and adult do not get time to engage in positive social experiences nor do they reflect on positive sense. Moral development is reinforced by social contexts and failure to collaborate with people in social setting hinders moral development. An important point is that violent video games detaches people from outside world and denies them the opportunity to explore and understand the good morals. The world of violence makes players to loss self-control and become associated with aggressive behaviors. Violent games affect the mental health which not only leads to aggressive behaviors but it also causes depression. This occurs when the player becomes addicted and feels restlessness and becomes isolated from friends. This situation affects the life of player especially young people as they are unable to continue with education as they become involved with criminal acts to sustain their lives. (Bajovic, 187)

Work cited

Cunningham, Scott, et al. "Violent Video Games and Violent Crime." Southern Economic Journal, vol. 82,

1265. 4, Apr. 2016, pp. 1247-1265. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1002/soej.12139.

Bajovic, Mirjana. "Violent Video Gaming and Moral Reasoning in Adolescents: Is There an

Association?." Educational Media International, vol. 50, no. 3, Sept. 2013, pp. 177-191.

EBSCOhost, doi:10.1080/09523987.2013.836367.

DOMESTIC VIOLENCE

INTRODUCTION

Domestic violence is a subject that has been discussed widely over the years. It has been researched on many times by different institutions. The researches tend to look more towards how it affects children. They tend to focus more on the children and they forget to focus also on its effect on the society as whole. This research will majorly focus on the effects of domestic violence on the society as a whole and steps that can be taken to reduce its effect on the society.

The society consists of many people.one of the main effects that that domestic violence has on the society is it threatens the existing security of the people. When one person experiences domestic violence, the others are concerned about their safety and they may seek shelter somewhere else that is safer. This may lead to depression and may affect their future. Parents who abuse their children can cause exhibition of symptoms such as stress, depression and even sickness. Such children may grow up to be isolated from family life and this may destroy the family fabric of the society on which the society is formed.

Elderly people can also experience domestic violence. This can be done by exploiting them financially, beating them and refusing to help them get their basic needs. This may lead to their deaths and even cause emotional damage to them hence dismantling their ability to live normal lives as humans. Elderly people though they form a small fraction of the society they play major roles in the society which ensure that the society runs well through their vast experience. Some elderly people also hold a lot of responsibilities which can be affected when they face domestic violence which in turn affects the society.

Domestic violence is a vice that occur across people of all ages, race, religion, socio-economic status and all culture among the society. Different cultures host different believe systems which may help to foster conditions that create domestic violence. As the society becomes more multi-cultural it has become difficult to deal with domestic violence and the authority or people concerned have to deal with it in relation to the culture of the victim. This enables the society to continue to co-exist together as the act is able to be criminalized no matter the culture.

A society that has experienced a lot of domestic violence tend to have a lot of criminal and school dropouts in its society compared to another which rarely experiences domestic violence. Also intimate relationships which raise children in a way that exposes them to domestic violence; the children may become harsh in the future and may end up being emotionally depressed. People who are exposed to domestic violence by people they know tend to be more suicidal and introverts due to the loss of self-esteem and lack of trust.

Domestic violence societies also tend to produce a society that is unequal as women are the most common victims of domestic violence. This tends to create perception that they deserve it. Cases where women are sexually abused also go unreported hence they do not get justice they deserve leading to inequality in the society. Some women usually develop fear of reporting this case based on discrimination which previous cases have been given.

RECOMMENDATIONS      

One of the main areas is coming up with legislations that will enable justice to be served timely and the victims will receive the required attention according to their needs. Complains raised by the victims should be promptly answered without delay. Such legislations can be done by the government by strengthening of existing laws. Court orders should also be implemented in faster manner. Setting up a speed dial which can be accessed by the victims is the other way which can cur and regulate domestic violence

Stereotyping, Discrimination and Biases

A stereotype is a situation where people   use prior assumptions when describing or dealing with specific social groups. In dealing with diverse group, people tend to rely on their own thoughts that a certain group is associated with specific things. Rather than using factual knowledge, people use beliefs which do not draw realistic conclusion about the group (Nelson, 2015).  Bias can be defined as a situation where people create systematic errors on rigid notions in decision making. Bias can be demonstrated either in gender, race, age and more. Individuals perform bias with different purposes by using preconceived ideas. Discrimination refers to a situation where individuals from specific group are denied their equal rights or are excluded from available opportunities (Nelson, 2015). For example in the place of work, a manager may employ male worker to work in a specific task and deny a female worker the opportunity by regarding her as inferior. Discrimination is also a general term which applies in the community where some people do not access economic, political, social and cultural benefits. In discrimination, human rights are violated and people do not enjoy the fundamental rights (Nelson, 2015).  

It is important to be aware of discrimination in order to put appropriate actions. First, before taking action, it is important to understand the various forms of discrimination in the place of work. For example, there is age discrimination where old employees are fired or younger employees are promoted (Chin, 2004). Disability discrimination may occur where manager’s fails to promote disabled people and care less on their working conditions. Gender discrimination is the most known form of discrimination where female are denied opportunities than men. Women are also sexually harassed and do not   reach the highest level positions (Chin, 2004). Racial discrimination is also common where employees get unequal treatment because of their race. Having understood some forms of discrimination, people should react toward discrimination and confront by speaking to the person to change behaviors. You can directly communicate to the person or use supervisory authority. In addition, awareness is important as it will allow organizational members to solve the issue by spending time together and know each other (Chin, 2004). Through interaction, individual will avoid creating bias in future. Awareness will allow people to learn about diverse cultures and understand the importance of culture in creating a democratic society.

 The importance of awareness in teamwork and hiring decisions is that the organization will implement workplace policies and adhere to the anti-discrimination laws (Nelson, 2015).  For example, in teamwork, people will try to avoid bias and discrimination by valuing diversity and its importance in fostering relation. Awareness will also allow individuals to embrace uniquesness of diverse cultures, understand differences, respect the culture and create a healthy relationship (Nelson, 2015).  By recognizing the various forms of bias in place work, it is easier to build a harmonious environment and the organizational members will focus on cooperation and moving the business forward.

  In the hiring process, managers will value the different culture and focus on hiring diverse applicants who will share knowledge and skills in achieving the business goals (Nelson, 2015).  Mangers will be in a better place of nurturing the organization by embracing the interests of people from diverse culture who will be supportive to each other. Awareness will eliminate the perspective of counterproductive exercise and focus on workforce diversity. Last awareness will help the organization adhere to antidiscrimination law which will ensure a fair hiring process (Nelson, 2015).

Reference

 Nelson D. Todd. (2015). Handbook of Prejudice, Stereotyping, and Discrimination: 2nd Edition. Psychology Press

Chin, J. L. (2004). The psychology of prejudice and discrimination: 3. Westport, Conn. [u.a.: Praeger Publ.

Identifying your Social Style

1.

            Anyone’s social style relates to the depiction of the behavior pattern of people and their thoughts on others.  It roots on observable behavior that rapidly identifies a person’s prejudice and makes informed choices to make the person comfortable. It is important for a person to be aware of his personal social style and the way others observe the social style.  This perceptual difference affects the communication that happens between you and the other people that you lead.  For instance, if a person is the leader of some guards, and they perceive you as a failure, they consider you as easygoing. Rather than you controlling them, you may find them supervising you and this makes you irritated of your ability to control and lead them.  Having effective social style and leadership starts with a person acknowledging the importance of perceptual leadership (Levine, 2015). 

            For one to understand the reason as to why people perceive them in a certain way, it is vital to compare their own perceptions with your personal perceptions.  This will help one to become aware of why people communicate to them in a particular way.  The knowledge helps a person in changing their communication that increases a person’s ability.  Self-contract is an approach of adjusting your communication to how others communicate.  For instance if one is a critical leader who leads a group of drivers, you will improve your leadership skills if you communicate more of a driver. This includes having direct communication with the team and giving them liberty to propose their opinions.  This does not mean that it is the desired communication style but it is the best communication with the social group (Levine, 2015).   

2

            Contrasting my results with the self-perception from the feedback from my relatives, I note that emotional aptitude forecasts people’s ability to control them, supervise other people and gain success. Review shows that there is a connection between emotional aptitude and success in profession.  Not every person is born with emotional intelligence but can gain and improve it through practice.  Regardless of the nature of people’s reactions, people with high emotional intelligence do not reject it and make excuses or get restlessness (Levine, 2015). 

            People may claim that they did not do the wrong thing and believe that their performance was better; they witness rejection by this.  This also causes excuses that are the responses common to people with less emotional intelligence. An excuse is an admission of fault that comprises mitigating factors that no human can easily overcome.  Anxiety causes emotional intelligence.  The subject lacks the readiness to move on to improve future performance and this causes failure in life (Levine, 2015). 

            People such as the driver with emotional intelligence as described in my results, he appear to hold conflict that shows a response based on stress. Just thinking about the failed issue sends the body into fight that is a survival method that forces a person to stand up and fight when faced with threats. When threat arises, the response is important for your survival but when the threat fails, holding the stress inflict the body and may cause health problems (Levine, 2015).  

            People feel misunderstood due to emotional intelligences.  This makes it difficult to understand how they came across others.  One feels misunderstood due to lack of proper message deliverance in a way that people can understand.  Even through practice, emotionally intelligent people acknowledge that they do not communicate every idea perfectly. They realize that people do not understand what they are saying and changes their approach and re-communicate their ideas in a way that people can understand (Levine, 2015). 

            A person’s emotional intelligence is highly flexible.  One has to train their brain and practice new emotionally intelligent behaviors and this creates ways that improves their habits. As the brain adapts to the use of the new behaviors, the relations supporting the destructive behaviors die off. As a result, you start responding to the environment with emotional intelligence even without thinking about it. There are reasons enough that prove my high insolence nature. Apart from the observed traits or manners, my cousin feels that I have a high emotional response especially to my elders.  He claims that I become conversant with people, sometimes revolting but responsive.  These evidences are clear enough to describe my personality that I am highly responsive (Levine, 2015). 

3

            Talking about my personality, my social style is highly aggressive and highly receptive person. In connection to communication, an aggressive person is always friendly, receptive, has an open communication and is trusting. When communicating orally, people may mistake my high assertiveness and claim for rudeness or not being a good communicator.  Communicative people generally want sounding communicators and someone to talk with.  Research proofs that the emotional areas of the brain arise even as the cognitive areas arise.  This shows that the emotional aspects of the listener’s brain will correspond with the cognitive areas such as when the listener listens to the speaker who raises his voice (Lumsden & Wiethoff, 2010).

             Good people with high intelligence should not show emotions and must remain neutral.  However, it is clear that they are not robots but also humans who also feel emotions and who notice that the feelings entrench in non-verbal communication.   This shows that the process of understanding the verbal and non-verbal features describes the impartial ways of creating information into the brain through senses.  Thus, the interpreter faces an angry speaker with more or less violent emotions that are observable but through a successive understanding, the speaker analyzes the message less violently (Lumsden & Wiethoff, 2010).  

4

            Being a good listener is a way that will improve my communication skills.  Many people do not understand that listening is important part of the communication process.  It does not only improve your communication with people, but it is a way of showing respect for others.  When people respect each other, it becomes an easier way to build long relationships.  The important thing here is paying attention to the speaker that will help one to understand the conversation by repeating the main points in your reaction (Barker, 2006).   

            Being aware of other people’s emotions improves the communication skills.  Being sympathetic with others shows your positive attitude towards their feelings.  Encouraging people make them feel wanted, valued, and appreciated in your communication.  Use of jokes in understanding other people’s feelings is important as it helps people relieve stress and anxiety.  Most people like laughing and fell better when somebody makes them laugh (Barker, 2006).   

            Treating people equally is a way of improving communication styles.  Always aim to communicate on an equal level and avoid condescending people. This will create trust and respect among people.  One has to ensure that people understands what you say to avoid confusion and negative feelings.  If confidentiality is a difficult matter, ensure discovering its limitations and ensure its maintenance (Barker, 2006).    

Reference

Barker, A. (2006). Improve your communication skills. London: Kogan Page.

Levine, B. N. (2015). Jock talk: 5 communication principles for leaders as exemplified by legends of the sports world.

Lumsden, G., Lumsden, D. L., & Wiethoff, C. (2010). Communicating in groups and teams: Sharing leadership. Australia: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.

Modern Japanese Women Writers

Advocacy of women’s right on equality and sexes has been debated over and over.  In Japan the issue has been dealt with whereby; the new constitution has stipulated equity among gender. Initially all that women had to do for the society was obey the male gender whether; a husband, brother, father or son. Changes occurred whereby; torture and trafficking of women was restricted and women were allowed to request for divorces as well as receive elementary education. During the early days, the role of women was inconsistent due to various pressures that were incorporated at different periods of time. Writing has been one of the major strength for women to fight for freedom whereby; in Japan two records were written “Kojiki and Nihongi” and generated the first documented Japanese positive attitude toward the female gender. Literature has generally opened a widow for the modern day analysis whereby, it allows the contemporary women in Japan evaluate their identity (Leslie 267).

It is the Mythology in the written stories which are based on feminism generated antiquity in Japan. The initial achievement of women writers in Japan has highly facilitated the initial consideration of Japanese literature. The women writers were able to write the first autobiographical narratives in diaries as well as, miscellaneous writings such as poems. A golden age by women in Japan has been developed, due to the introduction of literature. Women writing are an essential act in Japan since; it generates a cultural construal of the national assets relevance to contemporary work in gender as well as proportional literature. Japanese nature provides an interesting unify as well as illusion place for women in the society (Copeland 212).

According to Higuchi it is genuine that Japan has evolved from its semi- feudal root by becoming a world power. In consideration to how the nation has suffered and struggled with the Americans, in order to acquire power it has generated its current lifestyle from existence. I would therefore support “Two Modern Girls” writing illustrating that, despite the female being exploited harshly they have become basic in the country’s economy. In the time when writing was first introduced, women were highly encouraged to becoming the foundation of the nation. It was a bad consideration of the female gender whereby; they were made to live in accordance to the saying “Umeyo fuyaseyo,” which suggests that all they were obliged to give birth to children thus; increasing the population (Leslie 267).

Feminism literary critics have defined the female writers in terms of various gender related background such as; biological, historical, practice as well as society. Before the modern era in Japan women were lowered such that; they were not allowed to rule, the limitation strengthened them and they were able to rule due to confidence they did in literature, in order to bring peace as well as regulation of their country. In the third century Pikimo was announced as the women ruler whereby; she was portrayed as having mature eyes. The document that considered women for ruling also had considered women opinions ( Kōda & Ann 160).

When Pikimio became Queen, she received much respect and honor from people suggesting that women value had been established in the nation. Writing did not only consider feminism positively but according to Shimizu Shikin, “Two Modern Girls,” it led to torture of many women where most of them were made cripples. The female Writers in Japan aimed at playing an essential role whereby; they severed as role models. Writers were also able to develop a chance promoting their presence in the nation whereby; they were really recognized. I would therefore suggest that the women writers like Shimizu and Heina were not only contemporary inventions, but also as prominent ladies writers (Sata 189).

Higuchi Ichiyō is good example of a writer in Japan who used her literal power to fight for the female gender. With her great achievements Higuchi Ichiyō was being identified with hero’s rather that heroines. This illustration shows how women limitation issue was difficult to deal with whereby; only the male were heard for prominent. It was so obvious for the lady to feel herself as a male despite that she is a woman because, by being a genius nobody would recognize her as a female. The nation practiced injustice on the gender especially at educational levels. In reference to Higuchi’s writing whereby; as a little girl she was introduced in an elementary school but the parents  did not like the idea since, for girls their role was being productive in the society rather that issuing them with proper learning. Shimizu Shikin is also a great female contributor in fight for women whereby; she represented the conflicting challenges as well as expectations in woman’s writing career. I would agree with her writing suggesting that the writers were strong that they did not shy of, because their aim was on female consideration ( Kōda & Ann 161).

Women in Japan had a social order whereby; their position was ranked very higher though they were not allowed to be educated due to their social internment. In reference to Higuchi, education for the female gender was not necessary because no matter their social position and skills they were still limited to the unfair equity. Japanese women were discriminated against gender especially in social ranking as well as marriage. The only major role expect of women by the Japanese society was entertaining the male gender plus production. Shimizu Shikin’s effort in fighting for women was not in vain because, despite all the difficulties she went through there was still hope whereby; she became the first professional journalist in Japan.  However, literature in Japan played an essential part by opening doors for women in leadership (Sata 190).

Work Cited

Adorno, Theodor W, and Theodor W. Adorno. Critical Models: Interventions and Catchwords. New York: Columbia University Press, 1998. Print.

Copeland, Rebecca L. Lost Leaves: Women Writers of Meiji Japan. Honolulu: Univ. of Hawai'i Press, 2000. Print.

Kōda, Aya, and Ann Sherif. Mirror: The Fiction and Essays of Kōda Aya. Honolulu, Hawaii: University of Hawai'i Press, 2009. Print.

Leslie Winston. The Voice of Sex and the Sex of Voice in Higuchi Ichinyo and Shimizu Shikin. University of California Press, 2011.Reprint

Sata, Ineko. Five Faces of Japanese Feminism: Crimson and Other Works. 2016. Print.

Okuda, Akiko. Women and Religion in Japan. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1998. Print

.

Do Video Games have a negative effect on people?

Introduction

 Since 1970s when video games emerged, they have become the most valued form of entertainment by both children and adults.  In modern popular culture, video games have led to the establishment of gaming industries.  In 1985 to 1990, the video game industry expanded from a volume of $100million to $4 billion respectively.  The development increased dramatically in that in 2013, the video game industry in worldwide had a volume of $93billion. The interesting thing with video games is that adults and children prefer video games than junk food.  Other issues  is that despite the fact video games have  negative effects on  children behaviors, parents are unable to control the behaviors  because  they too play video games. Do you know that technology has changed the way in which people spend their leisure time?  People spend more time in video games and less in outdoor recreation such physical exercise. The Entertainment Software Associated stated that 150million Americans have connected themselves with the technology of video games. The dramatic increase of users or players concludes that that 81% of young people play video game and 8.5% are addicted.  However, a comprehensive review and various research methodologies such as intervention studies, experiments and more have shown that video game is associated with violence behaviors to both children and adults. Since people have made video game to be their leisure activity and having learned that most of the games have hyper-realist violence, exposure to violence in video games change actual behaviors to violent behaviors.

First, video games are addictive.  This statement is strong to explain how people are negatively affected by video games and the tendency to develop aggressive behaviors.  Like other addictive behaviors, people spend more time on video game and less time on other recreational activities. Failure to watch video games lead to withdrawal symptoms and so it is worth saying that videogames create ‘dependency’ where players believe that gaming is a psychological function (Gunter, 70).  By being closer connected with video games, people are psychologically involved. Video game contents   such as nuclear conflict, horror of war and more negatively impacts the people’s life.  (Gunter, 70) argues that video games affect the education in that children neglect studying and spend much time on electronic games. The problem with addiction  is that  people always  crates negative feelings on real setting and in this, children and adults do not involve themselves in constructive things.

Cunningham et al, 1247) assert that video games have negative effects on people and violence in video games is a policy concern in popular culture. The issue has made the Federal Trade Commission to petition the U.S congress to create laws for banning video games to children. violent behavior has a become the major concern as  exposure to video game images has resulted to psychological aggression  which then result to violent crimes such as shooting (Cunningham et al, 1247). This article presents a laboratory experiments on violent games on aggression, and it is found that video games are associated with a high rate of crime.  The article asserts that since 19^th century and 20^th century, the issue of violent games has been debated and psychologists have put much concern on this issue.  Since these periods, theoretical mechanisms  have  found that  video games are associated with aggression,  and in this case the psychological theory discusses aggression  using the model of ‘general aggression model’ (GAM). The latter states that video games which expose violent images increase the aggressive behaviors (Cunningham et al, 1249).  GAM argues that the internal state of human being is influenced by personological variables.  Internal state which comprises thoughts and feelings responds to external setting aggressively. Video games with violent content create aggressive attitudes. GAM is connected with an addictive and the combination creates the reality that violent video games increases aggression. The psychological theory together with the social learning theory states that in video games, people have the tendency to interpret the social setting.  This process of evaluating the social setting makes the gamer to arrive into conclusions. When people become exposed to violent content in video games, they increase aggression (Cunningham et al, 1259). 

 Gaming is unhealthy. Video games make children to change behaviors and to act in a way which is against the interest of the society.  The author argues that violent content in video games develops aggressive thoughts. Note that people spend much time on video games and this creates social isolation. They become disconnected with social and extracurricular activities hence   engage themselves in   futile activities (Gimple, 19). In addition, video games in gaming industry   have a big impact on young generation. Various studies on video game have been conducted and one study conducted in 1984 by Dominick found that video games are associated with aggression and delinquency.  Gimple, (7) asserts that real-life tragedies have been apparent from the video games.  For example, video games contain images such as shooting, blood and more.  People enter in real world and act aggressively to be considered heroes.

 Even though video games in modern technology are valued as the best form of entertainment, the entertainment industry has changed.  With the technology, people now can watch video games from tablets, home computers and other devices.  The time which people spend on video games is a concern as researchers have found that the more time spent in video games the more the aggressive behaviors. To find evidence of aggression in video games, cognitive neo-association theory asserts that when people are regularly exposed to aversive events, they develop aggressive behaviors (Dorman, 34).  Aversive events are responsible for negative behaviors which then results to flight tendencies. Note that video games images are stored in the mind and the knowledge structures which activate the violence.

 The Columbine shootings which happened in 1999 are an evident that video games affect people negatively. Before the occurrence of this tragedy, violence games such as Doom and Resident Evil were popular. After the Columbine, a study on the video industry was done to evaluate the   practices (Dorman, 56). Author Ryan Van Cleave in his book, asserts that video games affected his life to an extent that he wanted to commit suicide. The reason for referring him is to show that video games are addictive   due to the reason that   people are connected to the ‘pathological’ level which then affects the social relationship (Dorman, 56). Video games also affect people negatively by developing ‘attention deficit Disorder’. This disorder affects those people who spend more time on video games. The disorder also affects children particularly the learners where it is found that they develop attention problems. This is an indication that children who spend more time in playing video games decrease the attention capacity (Dorman, 87). Children and adolescents perform poorly in school as these people lack enough time to study.  For example, a study was done where young people aged 10-19 years were involved. The finding showed that children who play video games spend less time in reading and doing homework and more in playing games (Dorman, 167).

 The theory of games asserts that video games are expected to produce fictional events and actions   but the actions which are produced do not meet the moral qualities.  In popular media, violent video games are popular because they are associated with scandalizing effect. Video games present a moral problem and lack moral maturity.  Lack of moral qualities has created   a modern society’s ills.  Tavinor, (153) argues that video games are bad and affect people since they have a negative impact on character and values. When the latter aspects are changed, people have the tendency to increase behavioral aggression and delinquency.  Tavinor argues that “repeated exposure  to graphic scenes of violence is likely to be desensitizing” (Tavinor,  153).  People who are regularly exposed to video games develop long-term effects. The author also argues that video games have a major theme of killing. Evidence of mass killing in campus has been seen. The mass killing is a consequence of gaming which teaches children immoral activities.

Kowert and Quandit, (74) introduces the ‘internet gaming disorder’ which is a problem contributed by video games addiction. Since 1970 when commercial video games were released, psychological literature introduced the video game addiction in 1980s. During this period, Soper and Miller reported the first video game addiction which was associated with compulsive behavioral involvement and mental symptoms (Kowert and Quandit, 75). The author also touches the cognitive performance and claims that human brain is a learning machine which shows improvements on motor task (Kowert and Quandit, 79).  Video games are associated with risk since most images portray unfair treatment.  In addition, they pose societal problems especially when people become aggressive. Different research perspectives such as Active Media perspective makes it clear that player or the media affects the social psychology and behaviors of the users. On the other hand, Active User perspective states that the player has certain active interpretation while on the stage (Kowert and Quandit, 80).   The difference between the two is that the former discusses the risk of computer and latter focuses on different impact of video games on individual life. In researching the video games and the associated risk, active media is important as it focuses on social psychological perspective, and ‘the effect of tradition’ which are responsible for violence due to their measurable effects on the games (Kowert and Quandit, 85).

Different research methodologies such as experimental tests, surveys and others have shown evidence of negative effects of video games. The findings have confirmed that violence in video games increases aggressive behaviors where the player develops violation elements in goal-oriented behavior, attention abilities and more (BURGESS, 116).  Desensitization is a major problem which is contributed by video games where the player develops emotion-physiological reactivity to behaviors which are morally wrong.  Two hundred and fifty seven students from college level were examined for 20minutes. The group played violent video game and nonviolent videos. In the first case, violent video game was associated with low physiological arousal.  This shows that the nature as well as the content of the game is responsible for developing perturbing results (BURGESS, 118). It is also found that video games have specific features targeted to specific group with a purpose of practicing self-control and nurturing positive response toward negative conditions. People have cognitive and physical effects from the use of video games and this means that there is a like hood that they will develop unique action, behaviors and more which are controlled by these effects (BURGESS, 120).  

Anderson et al, (3) asserts that 89% of video games contents are violence and despite this high percentage, 99% boys and 94% girls and 70% children aged 8-9 years in U.S   play video games.  Having   understood how people are exposed to violent video games, it is also possible to understand the big impact of the games on these people.  In this case, it is important to know that there is a difference between violent television programs and violent video games (Anderson et al, 4).  The former does not have a big impact on life   but the latter have strong effects. This is because, video games presents an active process which means that young people like being involved in real and active things. In addition, people tend to concentrate much on violent character when playing video games.  In this case, the player   uses the visual perspective in the rest of his life. The bad thing will video games is that the player  is interested with violent character and wishes that he or she may become victorious.  On the same note, someone who is a winner or who shows violent behavior is allowed to continue with game. For example,   the player in warfare becomes a winner and his violent acts may be praised by telling him or her “Nice Shot!”  (Anderson et al, 115).Thus, comparing  violent in television programs and violent in video games show a difference in that people involved in violence in video games develops aggressive behaviors. The author asserts that aggressive behaviors are contributed by aggressive thoughts.  The latter is created after playing video game and interpreting the entire game in a hostile way.  Since, video games has different scenes, the player may interpret the scenes in aggressive way and apply the thought in real life situation.   Note that different people learn deferent life lessons from video game and research show that majority learns a negative lesson and later develops an aggressive personality (Anderson et al, 223).

Apart from focusing on thought and behavior modification, video games area also associated with physiological arousal (Dorman, 12).  This means that the body changes in terms of heart rate, skin conductance and more.  These conditions affect the player’s response to different emotions.  Video games create which means that the player interprets   all situations with severe emotions.  Video games heighten psychological arousal and make the player to act more aggressively (Dorman, 12).  Video games also change the prosocial behavior-the player reduces the willingness to do well to others. Violent video games are associated with aggressive thoughts and the players disconnects from prosocial behaviors which can benefit people.  He or she is more connected with actions which can do harm to others.  Violent videos have an effect on the psychological process.  First, the latter is affected through priming.  According to neuroscientists’ research, players develop many behavioral scripts and add them to the human memory which has nodes and links.  The links connects nodes and behavioral scripts (thoughts, feelings etc) in the memory (Dorman, 65). The nodes becomes activated when a person meet a stimulus. The concepts from violent video games and which were linked to the memory are activated in different situations where a person behaviors aggressively. The psychological process is also affected though mimicry. This means that human beings have ‘mirror neurons’ which is responsible for copying behaviors. Thus, people   observe and copy the aggressive acts and present them in real world. The psychological process is also affected through changing the physiological arousal. The action-packed sequences cause the physiological arousal   and this makes the player to become inclined to act and develop dominant response tendency (Dorman, 84).

 In the past, television and films were popular but in modern popular culture people find video games more pleasurable. However, the major problem which literatures and research consider in researching the usage of video game is violence. Despite the fact that people do not value recreational activities but rather like playing video games, there are negatives effects on this.  Both children and adults develop aggressive behaviors after playing violent video games (Griffiths, 339).  Aggressive behaviors encompass negative feelings.  This introduces the issue of poor performances and I can argue that when children develop aggressive behaviors, their performance is affected since they lose concentration and their minds reflect on video games and violence. In other words, video games have interactive demands where people are unable to do anything without watching or playing games. The behavior of spending more time on video games prevents people from engaging in fruitful activities (Griffiths, 339. Thus, students’ school performance is affected because of increasing more time on video games which leads to sedentary behavior.  In examining the academic performance, aggressive behaviors remain the root cause of poor performance. This is because, when   children becomes connected with violent video games, they aggressive thoughts, angry feeling and unpleasing behaviors (Griffiths, 378). The students are controlled by a hostile environment and so he or she is unable to interact with authority or peers.

 Video games are important as people get entertainment but the major concern is its effect on children.  Video games portray negative images of violence which impacts the life of children.  In real life, these children involve themselves in aggressive acts and it becomes hard to change the behaviors because they are socially constructed and they have impacted the moral development.   Bajovic, (176) argue that children’s moral reasoning is affected in that when they play video games, they search for more strategies to judge the violence watched.  Note that people prefer video games which have human violence such as NHL series, Grand Turism and more. The reason as to why people‘s moral reasoning become affected is that violence behaviors in the video games are rewarded (Bajovic, 180).  The moral reasoning becomes affected in that by becoming so much exposed to violence, people develop negative attitudes and their moral evaluation is controlled by violent behavior scripts.

The importance of reviewing the stages of moral development is to understand how video The theory of moral development asserts that young people  passes through   stage of moral development and during these stages,  they  believe that in order to be morally good, then one should  act in a good or positive way. This is a moral judgment which helps young people to interact with others in social setting (Bajovic, 194). Moral development has different stages the first one is the stage power. During this stage children act positively but they do not use moral reasoning while acting but rather their act positively to avoid punishment.  The second stage is the deals-means that children do to others what they would like to be done. Third is mutuality stage where children focus on moral judgment and act with respect to the interests of the community or in other words they comply with ethical principles. Fourth stage is systems-means that people show justice and caring (Bajovic, 254). In this case, people set clear objectives and to achieve the objectives and they need to create extrinsic reinforcement which influences the player to apply the objectives to the real world. When moral development is affected, people create a culture of violence.  Parents are able to prevent their children from playing video games (Bajovic, 258).  Generally, moral development in children who play video game is hindered; such people experience low level of sociomoral maturity.

Conclusion

Video games negatively affect people as they are associated with anti-social behaviors.  Several studies have confirmed that people spend more on video games and less time in recreational activities. The problem with video games is that many of them are associated with violence and high exposure to violence videos develops aggressive behaviors. The problem with aggressive behaviors has increased dramatically since parents are not responsible for their children. 90% of children who are in 8-12 grades said that their parents do not consider ratings of video games when purchasing and at home they do not create time limit on playing video games. Parents also join children in playing games and motivate them to spend more time in video games rather than in studying or recreational activities. Aggressive behaviors affect the academic performance as children are unable to concentrate and are controlled by anger.  In their moral development, lack of awareness on video games effects hinders their development.  Video games are important as they create a pleasurable moment but both children and parent should limit the time on video games in order to avoid the negative consequences which affects their lives.

Work cited

Cunningham, Scott, et al. "Violent Video Games and Violent Crime." Southern Economic Journal, vol. 82,

1265. 4, Apr. 2016, pp. 1247-1265. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1002/soej.12139.

BURGESS, STEPHEN R., et al. "Video Game Playing and Academic Performance in College

Students." College Student Journal, vol. 46, no. 2, June 2012, pp. 376-387. EBSCOhost,

search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=77698068&site=ehost-live.

Griffiths, Mark. "Online Video Gaming: What Should Educational Psychologists Know?." Educational

in Practice, vol. 26, no. 1, Mar. 2010, pp. 35-40. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1080/02667360903522769.

Bajovic, Mirjana. "Violent Video Gaming and Moral Reasoning in Adolescents: Is There an

Association?." Educational Media International, vol. 50, no. 3, Sept. 2013, pp. 177-191.

EBSCOhost, doi:10.1080/09523987.2013.836367.

Dorman, Steve M. "Video and Computer Games; Effect on Children and Implications for Health

Education." Journal of School Health, vol. 67, no. 4, Apr. 1997, p. 133. EBSCOhost,

search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=tfh&AN=9705150796&site=ehost-

live.

Kowert R. & Quandt T., The Video Game Debate: Unravelling the Physical, Social, and Psychological

Effects of Video Games. Routledge, 2015

Gunter, Barrie. Does Playing Video Games Make Players More Violent?New York: Palgrave Macmillan,

2016. Internet resource.

Gimpel D. Marczely. Violence in Video Games. ABDO Publishing Company, 2013

 Tavinor, Grant. The Art of Videogames. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, 2009. Internet resource.

Anderson, Craig A, Douglas A. Gentile, and Katherine E. Buckley. Violent Video Game Effects on Children

and Adolescents: Theory, Research, and Public Policy. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007.

Internet resource.

Do video games contribute to positive or negative impacts on children development?

Introduction

Since the emergence video games have attracted children across all ages. The growth of the market of the video games is adequate proof to the wide spread popularity midst children. Based on recent studies video games are associated with both positive and negative impacts on a child’s development. Video games are particularly frowned by most persons as distractive, time wasters and worse since the corrupt the living of the children and their thinking. The playing of video games is easily blamed as the main rationale to why children becomes anti-social and develop violent behaviors. However, for most psychologists and scientists video games are accounted as beneficial to the growth of children the main one being the capability to create smart children.  Actually video games can teach the respective children to adopt high thinking skills that will be a necessity in the future. The topic is important because it is a current social issue.

Conclusion

It is apparent that most of the video game are very innovative and are intended on generating fun.  This therefore provides an essential opportunity of triggering creativity potential. In addition, this is a great channel for relieving stress for the children who have no other better means. This is achieved by distracting the existence of stress and creating high entertainment value thus enhancing the general confidence of the children. In this context children grows sight and hands coordination and teaches them essential skills such as creative thoughts, cooperation and strategic thinking. However video game utilizes so much time for children which might affect their social and educative life. The engagement in aggressive games also leads to the development of aggressive thoughts and encourages sedentary living where children may develop unhealthy living and eating habits.

Health, Reproductive Rights and Justice Women History

Introduction

Minority groups in the US have consequently been faced with a lot of challenges, due to the types of rights which they were subjected to. Women of color, were not also subjected to the same rights as white women were subjected to, and this therefore meant that the government had total authority over their health, particularly if they made mistakes which were very serious. For instance, African American women were prohibited from drink alcohol or even smoking while pregnant. On the other hand, their counterparts the white women, were allowed to do each and everything they wanted to do. This therefore led to a separation of rights, whereby African Americans, Latins, indigenous Americans, and women of Asian descent, were not treated equally as white women in the country.

            In the past women’s rights were being abused in order to limit them from taking up certain positions. For example, the minority groups of women could not be allowed to take up elective positions in the US. This therefore meant that they were not being treated equally as white women in the country, who were able to take up elective posts (Silliman, et al, 23). In addition, minority groups of women were not also allowed to conduct abortions based on their will. African American women in particular, were not allowed to take birth control pills, as this was perceived to be against the law. Moreover, the birth control pills which they were able to access, were not good for their health. This therefore means that the pills which they could be able to easily access, could either lead to certain complications immediately after they took the drugs.

            Abortion was something which was not considered legal among the minority groups, and so anyone who undertook an abortion would face the full force of the law (Solinger, 40). Abortions were only done particularly when women had made a very big mistake or otherwise violated the law. If an African American had gone against the rule of the law, then this meant that the punishment would be a forced abortion particularly if they were pregnant, by the relevant authorities. Currently the status of women have changed in the US, they are still being sidelined from accessing certain public services and resources. Minority groups have not been able to access public health services and information about healthcare. This is consequently due to the uneven poverty rates, they therefore lack insurance covers, and they also have limited contraceptive services, which hinders them from being able to control their reproduction levels. According to a recent research, it was discovered that 42% of Latin women, 23% of African American women, 25% women of Asian descent, do not have health insurances, as opposed to 13% of white women who lack health insurance (Silliman, et al, 25).

            Reproductive rights in the country are therefore influenced by class, gender, race and immigration proficiencies of each and every groups (Nelson, 60). On the other hand, the health care providers do not consider the culture of the minority groups, while offering medical services to them. This therefore limits the types of services offered to the minority groups of women in the country. Furthermore, it is required of the health care providers to respect the traditions, practices and culture of each and every community while offering health services. Due to stereotyping, it is very hard for the health providers to have the required knowledge about different communities, making it a barrier to the interpretation of women’s needs. On the other hand, this also makes it very hard for those women who need health care and information from accessing it (Solinger, 45).

            Population growth has been one of the major issues which the US government has been trying to manage. This has therefore seen the country coming up with different strategies and approaches in order to make sure that they totally control population growth (Solinger, 47). The government has been over the years trying to control fertility a thing which has since been directed to both men and women of color. In addition, the government has been in some occasions trying to increase the fertility of the people of color, but mostly it has been reducing their fertility, in order to control their number of the people of color in the country. For instance, during the colonization period of the US, Native American women were usually given blankets infected with small pox intentionally, in order to control their number (Solinger, 45). After using the blankets, the women would get infected with small pox, and in the end they would lose their lives. This was therefore one of the ways of controlling the growth of the population in the country. On the other hand, the productivity of the slaves, was being increased, whereby the masters were asked to rape their slaves in order to increase the number of the slaves in the country. These slaves would therefore be used by their masters in providing labor, hence their numbers needed to be increased (Nelson, 60).

            After the colonization period, the government has been working on preventing the women of color from getting children. Different laws have therefore been implemented in order to bar women of color from being able to get children. This therefore includes the following, the implementation of the eugenics laws, sterilization abuses, immigration limits, directed family planning and welfare reforms. The government has therefore come up with these laws in order to make sure that the number of births of women of color is effectively limited in the country. For instance, the types of contraceptives given to the women of color is not similar to the ones given to the whites. This is so because, the government aims at gradually increasing the number of whites in the country, while at the same time, reducing the number of the people of color in the country (Silliman, et al, 28). This cannot be easily achieved, if the government does not come up with techniques of making sure that this move will not be easily noticed. On the other hand, sterilization abuses have really impacted most women of color negatively, since some of their cells cannot be able to perform normally. This may therefore lead to death of some cells hence making them unable to conceive or even give birth to mature children. The US government has therefore been able to use such tricks in order to make sure that the women of color continue to be oppressed, a move which may also seek to clearly wipe out all people of color from the country.

            Women have since the colonial period formed movements, in order to advocate for their reproductive rights (Solinger, 47). This has however not been taken seriously over the past, whereby some of their grievances were looked at, while others were not taken care of. The colonial government only considered some of women’s grievances, in order to silence them. They have never been granted the full freedom and rights which they advocated for. This has up to date, made the women of color vulnerable to different laws which require them to do things without their will. The women of color have therefore been limited from being able to enjoy their reproductive lives, since such authorities are not granted to them by the government. Furthermore, the government has been very bias when it comes to the allocation of resources to areas which have been dominated by the people of color, as compared to the areas dominated by the whites. This is consequently a move which is aimed at further discriminating the people of color in the US, thus making it hard for them to be able to lead peacefully lives according to their will (Silliman, et al, 28).

According to the national human rights commission, all people need be treated equally as others, since all human beings are equal to each other. Regardless of the race, color, age or gender, all citizens should be given the same rights, thus being able to lead equal lives as compared to others (Nelson, 62). No one should therefore limit the type of life that other people should lead, even though they might be of a different color from that of the natives. Furthermore, conferring to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), all persons have equal rights regardless of their social statuses. On the other hand, UHDR clearly states that some human rights tend to favor certain groups of people, and thus limiting the rights of other persons, particularly the minority. Therefore, in some countries, human rights may be viewed as justifiable, even though there are those who seem to be oppressed. This is consequently because, most countries look forward to favoring the majority, who have the say in the country, hence forgetting about the minority. The whites have dominated the political positions in the country, and so when it comes to the amendment and the passing of laws concerning the minorities, it becomes very hard for the whites to pass such laws. This is consequently because of the tranny of numbers in the congress a thing which tends to limit the rights of the people of color in the country (Silliman, et al, 31).

Conclusion

Health, reproductive rights and justice for women in history, have been associated with very evil vices, which seek to control the growth of the population of the people of color. Women of color have really been sidelined when it comes to the access of health care services, since the colonial period, where they were not allowed to seek medical health. In addition, as compared to the whites, the women of color have not been allowed to their rights to give births, and to also control their birth. This is so because the government has employed different means of making sure that they do procreate, thus making it hard for them to be able to get children. The government has since limited the rights of the women of color to the point of affecting their health in order to discourage them from giving birth.

Work Cited

Silliman, Jael Miriam, Marlene Gerber Fried, Loretta Ross, and Elena R. Gutiérrez. Undivided Rights: Women of Color Organize for Reproductive Justice. Chicago, IL: Haymarket, 2016. Print. 

Solinger, Rickie. Reproductive Politics: What Everyone Needs to Know. New York: Oxford UP, 2013. Print.

Nelson, Jennifer. More than Medicine: A History of the Feminist Women's Health Movement. New York: New York UP, 2015. Print.

Introduction

Violence against women as discussed by feminists and the UN can be described as any act of gender known violence that harms women physically, sexually and emotionally that end up causing suffering to the lives of women. It is reported that large numbers of women and children go through domestic violence especially in Africa. Women go through different types of violence for example domestic violence, forced marriages, female genital mutilation, rape, gender based violence, human trafficking and different assaults. Women experience violence even by people they love and trust where many ended up dying in the hands of husbands, family members and lovers as well. Violence against women and girls not only in Africa causes suffering, pain and emotional problems that ends up causing trauma and death. Violence end up incurring high economic costs in terms of high judicial costs and loss of productivity among those affected. The governments in different countries globally spend much money in order to fight domestic violence and solve the violence cases. Feminist activists have come up in support of ending domestic violence but have not yet succeeded since many cases are reported in the African countries. Different laws and rules have come up in order to fight domestic violence in Africa though violence cases are still reported on daily basis. Preventing and ending up domestic violence needs much attention and finances which the African governments fail to give. Funding is a major problem to those organizations and feminist activists who fight against domestic violence. Most organizations need funding in order to deal with gender violence cases therefore governments in different countries need to fund the organizations.

Preventing gender based violence is one of the functions of the government as well as women’s rights associations. Some norms in most societies portray women as inferior people compared to men therefore posing a threat to the government and feminist efforts to combat domestic violence. World Health Organization (WHO) reported that domestic violence is a worldwide problem all over the globe. WHO, carried out a study in 2005 that showed how most women in Tanzania, Ethiopia and Kenya among other African countries have suffered from domestic violence and other types of violence[1]. Domestic violence worsens the health problems affecting women especially in the African countries. Intimate partners and husbands were reported to carry out domestic violence in form of beatings and other types of violence therefore subjecting women to traumas and devastating their health. Domestic violence is known to go beyond beatings. Violence takes place in different forms including forced marriages and female genital mutilation which takes place in most African countries. WHO, reports that female genital mutilation has been known to cause different problems amongst women[2]. Excessive bleeding and infections come along with the genital mutilation which eventually causes death to most African women who are forced to go through the harmful physical exercise. Based on this report from WHO domestic violence has been a major problem the African woman faces though feminist movements have been fighting against this violence and other types of violence women go through. It is reported that some women are forced in to abortion and prostitution which is against human rights and women rights as well. Domestic violence has been a major reason in contributing untimely deaths in women and children as well as subjecting them to trauma. Therefore this paper aims at discussing whether feminist movements contributed to or not in eliminating domestic violence in Africa.

The women’s movement and the United Nations

Violence against women came to prominence after many women organization globally pushed for the rights of women to be upheld. Women identified that men had dominated them and that they were not only viewed as inferior people but subjected to violence of all types. The women organizations pushed for gender equality and equity in order to eradicate cases of gender based violence[3]. The women organizations identified violence as one form of discrimination that needed to be addressed in the most efficient manner. The organizations identified different types of discrimination and violence and pushed for the governments to ensure the violence cases were handled with the seriousness they deserved. The organizations ensured that violence was handled as a serious issue since it had been ignore making many women suffer not only in Africa but globally. Looking at an international level, violence against women was addressed by the United Nations since it was an important issue that needed immediate action and prevention measures carried out. The women organizations had dealt with some violence such as women trafficking for prostitution therefore the UN came in support of what the women organizations had began. The United Nations Decade for Women created awareness on the issue of violence against women and ensured most people understood on the issue and importance of fighting against the violence. United Nations supported the women organizations and ensured they monitored the progress on the fight against women violence globally. The World Plan Of Auction For Women supported the issue of violence against women by ensuring families came together where education programs were introduced in order to ensure family conflicts were resolved which would eventually cause violence.

During 1985 the violence against women issue was more prominent especially in the Third World Conference on Women in Nairobi which pushed for the rights of women to be respected[4]. The Nairobi Forward Looking for the Advancements of Women was concerned with women and recognized women who had been through domestic violence and other types of violence. The organization pushed for prevention of women violence which caused much trauma and to some extent death to the victims. The organization aimed at identified forward strategies that would ensure violence against women was dealt with and handled with the importance it deserved. The organization teamed up with the UN in ensuring violence against women was brought in to the light and preventive measures identified that would stop the violence. The forward strategies included legal measures in dealing with violence cases, preventive measures and policies, assistance to the victims and national machinery in order to ensure violence cases were combated[5]. The forward strategies also ensured public awareness was done in order to educate people on importance of preventing and stopping violence against women. The organization ensured that violence against women was handled in the right manner and that the public was made aware of the violence and consequences of the violence on the lives of women. The United Nations decade for women involved itself in handling violence criminal cases and ensuring those carrying out violence faced the law. The organization ensured that domestic violence was addressed and that appropriate laws and measures were put in place that would ensure domestic violence was stopped. The organization ensured that law enforcement was possible in dealing with domestic violence cases at the national levels in the African countries.

During early 1990s women organizations through various activists came up together and lobbied on the issue of violence and discrimination against women. The organizations came up together in support of women rights as part of the human rights. The women movements ensured they gained recognition through the media in support of fight against violence since many women had suffered as a result of domestic violence and other forms of violence and discrimination[6]. Lobbying for respect of women rights and fight against violence was steered by the World Conference on Human Rights which happened in Vienna during 1993. The conference ensured that women movements fought for the rights of women and fought against domestic violence and other forms of discrimination. Women lobbied globally and nationally as they fought against women violence and ensured the human rights laws identified women rights as part of the human rights laws. The women activists pushed for violence to be considered as violation of human rights and that people caught carrying out violence would face legal consequences in the courts of law. A global tribunal was created which would handle different violence cases from all countries globally as one way of combating violence against women. The conference ensured that violence would not be treated as a legal issue with those violating the laws facing legal consequences. The conference identified violence against women as one way of discrimination and ensured that preventive measures were identified which would ensure violence was dealt with in the right manner. In addition the human rights framework included women rights as part of the human rights meaning that women would no longer face discrimination and violence.

Taking on domestic violence against women in Africa

Those who practice violence against women have had a bad past which either saw them growing up in violent homes and were subjected to violence and often are known to abuse drugs and alcohol. A study carried out by the UN Population Fund back in 2000 showed that men in some African countries had the right to beat their wives as one way of punishing them when they do wrong.  Men in Africa in some societies are given rights to intimidate and beat their women as one way of correcting them since men are viewed as superior people compared to women. A study carried out on domestic violence in Uganda carried out by the US Human Rights Watch found out that families were seen to justify widows to be remarried to other males in the same families as a tradition that allowed bride price to be fully utilized[7]. That tradition is practiced in most African countries where the widow is inherited by a male in the same family since it is argued that once bride price is paid the woman becomes a property of the family. The widow once inherited looses all her property to the new husband. In case a woman has divorced the husband, dowry is supposed to be reimbursed by the woman’s family. In most cases the women seeking divorce is beaten by her brothers and forced to stay in her marriage since families do not allow returning the bride price[8]. This shows that women are viewed as properties and their feelings are not put in place in most African countries. Research has found out that HIV is more likely to be spread from one person to another in societies that have wife inheritance as a tradition.

African women suffer under the hands of men who assault them simply because men act as bread winners in the families. WHO, carried out a research and found out that women prefer living with husbands who batter and have been used to the routine of being assaulted because of the financial gains they get from men. Most women in Africa are house wives who carry out house chores and give birth as their main roles in the societies. The World Health Organization found that women in Africa who have at least secondary education are able to make wise decisions in their marriages and are able to decide whether they want to get married and who they should get married to. Education has been a major factor in fighting domestic violence from the research carried out since women are able to make decisions on their own[9]. Education has ensured that lower cases of violence are reported in African countries where women are given equal education opportunities with men. Educated women are able to make decisions and express themselves compared to those uneducated ones who view themselves as inferior compared to men. Women are not inferior compared to men thus need to be respected since they can carry out activities just like men can do. The level of education however is important since educated women are unlike uneducated ones who are easily manipulated by men and forced into activities they did not want. African countries need to endorse women education as one way of fighting against domestic violence and other forms of violence.

Security Reform as a Key to Protecting Women

Africa has been a victim of sexual conflict in countries at war for example sierra Leone, Liberia, Burundi , Democratic Republic of Congo and countries that are not at war in Africa for example Kenya and many more. Women are at the risk of rape and other forms of sexual harassment and victimization in Africa. In rare cases the police and other law enforcers take the crimes seriously if anything some of the policemen and soldiers especially in war zone areas are deemed among the abusers. Africa has found itself falling short of the responsibilities to protect women. In the willingness to safeguard women security institutions are taking steps to reform their ability in protection of women. One of the steps taken is that of cleaning out ranks by getting rid of personnel in guilty of abuse in the security forces. In Liberia for example, after a decade of civil war vetting panels were used to assess qualifications of applicants in the armed forces. The names and photos of interested parties were circulated to the public for criticizing. Any negative information disqualified a candidate and therefore he was rejected. Vetting process was also applied in DRC though women are still brutalized and the united nations associate it to the remnants of anti-government groups[10]. Another step taken has been training and staffing in the military and police personnel department. The question of women’s rights and gender based violence has been added to the police and military training programs. Though training does not have a great impact changes in the staffing has helped a deal. This is by recruiting and promoting more female figures in the security organs through gender balance when recruiting.

Kenya has been on the front line with gender equality debates in parliament while Liberia, which produced the first elected female president named Ellen Johnson-Sir Leaf, announced a goal of achieving military that would be twenty percent female. The main challenge to the aspect is that not many women applicants completed secondary education or obtained certificates from polytechnics locking them out. South Africa after a gender mainstreaming has been recruiting female troops and police since themid-1990s[11]. A third step is taking legal action by pursuing the criminals of sexual violence. Across Africa accessing justice by women remain limited reasons being weakness of courts which are usually situated in the big towns and urban areas with high court fees and corruption across the judiciary. New legal aids clinics have been established with also special units being set aside in countries like Liberia, Kenya, Sierra Leone and South Africa to deal with the offences related to sexual harassment. These units provide training programs for magistrates and also offers free legal advice to victims, arranges protection for witnesses. Another vocal step has been breaking the silence about sexual harassment by women’s organizations that expose the people behind the acts. Violence against women cannot be curbed by security institutions on their own because wide tolerance of abuses happens in the family which are private spaces. In Sierra Leone for example studies show that most women who qualified for the army and police were ordered not to join by their husbands.  Grass root action in schools, churches, market places and public venues is vital by breaking the silence for women to speak out.

Culture and domestic violence against Women in Africa

Norms and practices in a culture may either empower women or promote their human rights, customs, traditions and religious values or they may also be used to justify the violence against women in the society. In most cases of violence against women the victim is bound by culture to the abusers actions. Most women are assaulted as a result of choices certain men in the community made and cultural powers that allow the violence to be rampant[12]. Violence against women could be in various forms among them sexual violence physical violence, homicide and femicide. Domestic violence against women about 66percent is perpetrated by men women know or male partners. Some cultural practices for example female genital mutilation, child marriage and son preference are seen as some of the factors for violence against women. The ways culture makes violence of women seem like is as varied as culture on its own, for example it’s deemed that most teenage girls’ ages fourteen to twenty four report high rate of sexual violence in romantic dating relationships which are culturally constructed expectations. Some manifestation of killing women because they are women, femicide, is related to cultural norms and use of violence in women subordination[13]. Motives of femicide among them being custody or financial motives usually are done by an intimate person or a person she knows. In south Africa for example the rate of femicide is five times higher than the global average .Culture is  powerfully related to social, economic and political processes and not only a set of beliefs and practices. Women have to put effort in addressing rights in their specific communities. Violence caused by cultural factors must be investigated within diverse cultural settings by having to consider the ways in which concept of culture has been used.

Economic Inequalities and Violence against Women

Women are making an invaluable contribution to the economy through their paid and unpaid labor everywhere. Despite that, women have a high representation in the 70 percent of people living in poverty in countries for example Nigeria. African women are denied the same kind of economical privileges that men enjoy. Women loose out in education, work and health sectors. Their work is invisible in most cases or even worse poorly paid. Economic inequalities can therefore be a casual factor leading to violence against women at individual levels or economic trends that create enabling conditions for the violence[14]. Violence and economic inequalities are twin injustices that women experience in Africa. Women economic inequalities and discrimination in areas like employment, income and access to resources increases the risks of violence due to less capacity in decision making. The lack of economic empowerment for women is reflected in lack of access to economic resources like land, personal property and wages which place them at the lime light of violence. Economic independence may not shield women from violence but access to resources can enhance women’s capacity to make choices that include escaping violent scenarios and accessing protection against situations of violence. Most national governments aim at economic restructuring in order to help promote and ensure women’s equality socially and economically through public sectors programs and social spending[15]. Gender changes in the economy can be argued as an important factor in prevention of violence against women. Women should be given a platform to get the significant economic resources in order to help reduce the odds of intimate partner violence.  Effort should be made in development of both economic and violence prevention policies to combat violence against women.

Forms and manifestations of violence against women in various settings

Violence against women has been reported and documented by different bodies such as the UN, different media houses and organizations that have received violence cases. Acts of violence against women are well documented since violence cases continue to be reported especially in African countries. Violence against women may be initiated by the family, the state and the general community. The Beijing platform for action and the declaration on elimination of violence against women are known to address violence against women[16]. Most form of violence against women occurs in more than one setting for instance where harmful traditions cause the violence while they are supported by the community and family but are against the state laws. Women’s trafficking is one form of violence against women that involves family, community, state and even crosses to the international boundaries. Women face violence in different settings since family, state, community and other bodies are involved. Violence against women takes place within the family and the most identified violence types include battering, sexual abuse, marital rape, female genital mutilation, sexual abuse in small girls, early and forced marriages among young girls, violence against domestic workers and other different forms of exploitation and discrimination[17]. Domestic violence is the most form of violence that is reported hence much research and data is present and available. Intimate partner violence is the most common type of domestic violence African women as well as other women globally go through. Domestic violence in form of intimate partner violence causes traumas and psychologically problems to the victims especially those who are not able to report the abuse cases.

Most women are physically and sexually abused by their intimate partners and husbands. Most women are abused by men who abuse alcohol and drugs as research carried out has found out. Women are subjected to domestic violence such as economic and psychological violence. Some men deny women access to express themselves and control basic resources yet women in Africa take care of domestic chores. WHO reports that Ethiopia, Namibia and Tanzania lead in domestic violence cases in Africa while Japan and Thailand outside Africa[18]. Severe domestic violence eventually causes death to the victims where most untimely deaths amongst women are caused by the violence. Research found out that most women are killed either by husbands or boyfriends especially in South Africa and United States. Women are subjected to battering and different forms of assaults even during pregnancy as research found out. Women are physically abused during pregnancy and it is sad how some women succumb to the violence showing that violence need to be addressed as a major issue affecting women not only in Africa but globally. World Health Organization in its research found out that some women are exposed to emotional abuse where men treat them as inferior people who are weak and are not able to express themselves. Most women especially in Egypt are subjected to emotional abuse whereby men control all the activities and impose authority on the women failure to which battering takes place. Most women are seen to persevere to the abuse since they are not able to report since the community and family endorses some forms of the domestic violence. Some women go through verbal abuse where they are insulted by men therefore end up suffering from traumas.

Harmful traditional practices

Harmful traditions are practices supported by the community and family that end up causing discrimination and violence against women. Female genital mutilation, early and forced marriages and inciting widows to commit suicide are examples of harmful traditional practices that cause violence against women[19]. Some practices such dietary restrictions amongst the pregnancy women and wife inheritance, are examples of harmful traditional practices that violate the rights of women. In the African counties as well as Middle East countries it is estimated that most women have undergone through female genital mutilation which is a part of the traditional practices. The practice is common among the immigrant communities especially in Europe and North America. Guinea is the leading African countries in practicing female genital mutilation followed by Egypt, Ethiopia, Benin, Ghana, Niger and other African countries. Women’s group, organizations and movements have been fighting this harmful practice since it has negative consequences on the lives of women. The women organizations have almost succeeded in ending this practice though some communities still subject their young girls to this harmful practice which is being fought by most feminists[20]. Higher education status among women has ensured that the harmful practice is done away with since women are able to understand the negative consequences female genital mutilation has on their lives. Early marriages also impact negatively on the lives of women since it affects health of young girls since they are not strong to handle pregnancy and hard domestic chores. Young girls need to mature first for them to get married therefore subjecting them to early marriages is a form of domestic violence, exploitation and discrimination.

Advocacy and campaigns

Advocacy efforts and campaigns used to expose unacceptable violence against women continue taking place and ensure violence against women is stopped. Women organizations and movements ensure women are made aware of their rights and educated on measures of reporting those who violate their rights[21]. The campaigns are initiatives of women movements who push the government to ensure that women are respected and that preventive measures are put in place in order to combat violence against women. The women movements have succeeded in airing out the grievances of women since research shows that domestic violence cases being reported are on the decline. The women movements have ensured that women are educated on their rights and are taught on how to express their ideas since they are not inferior people compared to men[22]. The women movements ensure that they campaigns and advocate for the rights of women through carrying out demonstrations in the streets and using the media inclusive of televisions, print and social media. In 1998 a Tanzanian NGO known as the Tanzanian Media Women’s Association came up with a campaign against female genital mutilation through promoting enactment of the Sexual Offences Special Provision Act. The NGO teamed up together with other organizations in the fight against female genital mutilation which had claimed lives of young girls in the country. The campaign involved use of magazines, televisions and radio programs and social surveys which all aimed at educating women on the negative consequences of female genital mutilation. Theater artists and media personnel were involved in the fight against this harmful tradition[23]. The NGO provided educational materials to the public and created a website that provided more information on female genital mutilation.

Feminist movements have ensured they mobilize the communities as one strategy in prevention and fight of domestic violence. The women groups ensure they join together with the local leaders and other NGOs in the fight against domestic violence and other types of violence. Raising Voice is a women group organization which fights against women violence either by police, community and husbands in Kampala[24]. The women group ensures women rights are respected as part of human rights through carrying out various campaigns and demonstrations which support prevention of domestic violence. In Egypt the women groups ensured they mobilized the community through the religious leaders who then taught people the adverse effects of FGM since it was a common practice that claimed lives of people. The women group succeeded in the fight against FGM in Egypt since men agreed they would not marry circumcised and young girls. The religious leaders played important roles in convincing the people on the negative effects of FGM and early forced marriages as well. The women groups made people understand thus parents agreed not to subject their daughters to the harmful practice of circumcision as well as forcing them to get married at their early ages[25]. The women group ensured that those people who performed the FGM on girls stopped the exercise since they educated them on the harm the exercise causes to the young girls. The people who practiced the exercise vowed to end their work and instead focus on other useful activities that would not result ton early deaths.

Women groups for them to succeed in ending domestic violence and other forms of violence worked together with men. The groups would not be successful if they failed to involve the men.  Women groups ensured men worked in support of women leadership in the communities since earlier on leadership positions were entirely entitled to men. Women groups used various strategies in ensuring men were engaged in prevention measures based on fight against gender violence. Men organizations which were and still used in fight against gender violence include the military, men sports team, the police and trade unions as well[26]. The women groups performed campaigns that ensured male role models were used to educate other people on the importance of ending violence against women. The White Ribbon Campaign is one of the campaigns that encourage men and young boys in ensuring they fight against domestic violence as well as other forms of violence. The campaign started in Canada and has spread over 45 African countries where men are asked not to remain silent on the issue of domestic violence against women. The women organizations ensured they use the media and technology in fighting against women violence. The women organizations through the media taught people on the quality of reporting violence cases and increased awareness on the general public on causes and intended consequences of violence against women. Women were asked to report violence cases to the police since violence is a violation of women rights which are part of the human rights. The media was used since it would reach wide ranges of people thus ensure the women groups succeed in the fight against domestic violence. For instance the women groups used music videos in creating awareness on the issue of violence against women.

Women groups have used mass media, print media and social media in ensuring they fight against gender violence. The women groups have succeeded since through use of the internet information reaches wide ranges of people. Through use of the media women groups have promoted public safety in ensuring the issue of violence against women is discussed[27]. Through discussing the issue people are able to come up with ideas and solutions to the violence which is a global concern. The women groups urge women to remain open and discuss their problems in order to get solutions. Most women suffer domestic violence in silence since they fear opening up. The women groups discourage women to suffer in silence thus urge them to report cases of injustice and any type of violence for them to get help. Women are important people in the society thus need to be treated as important people who ensure communities are able to survive and run smoothly. Women are currently enrolled in schools and this has reduced chances of them getting violated. Women now go to school thus know their rights since the women organizations pushed for women to enroll themselves in schools. The girl child currently is educated unlike in the past therefore understanding the rights they are subjected to[28]. Through education women are able to understand that they are equal compared to men and that they are not inferior. Education has been an important factor in ensuring domestic violence is stopped amongst women. Educated women are respected by men therefore are not subjected to violence since they cannot remain silent compared to those who are not educated.

Conclusion

As this study has shown violence against women has been a global concern thus has not affected African countries alone. Domestic violence has been seen to affect many women physically and emotionally subjecting women to traumas and early deaths. Domestic violence is harmful to the lives of women and is a violation of women’s rights which are human rights. This study shows how women movements have been useful in ensuring domestic violence is eradicated though they have faced different challenges. Domestic violence cases are still reported not only in African countries but globally as well regardless of the preventive measures put in place by different states and women groups. Despite different efforts by the women groups, domestic violence still takes place and posses as a threat to many lives in women especially those living in Africa. Domestic violence takes place in different forms all over the world therefore more efforts need to be carried out by the women groups and governments in order to eradicate this harmful vice of violating women rights. The United Nations has joined women organizations in ensuring violence is eradicated not only in Africa but globally as well. The UN has been involved in ensuring domestic violence as well as other forms of violence are addressed and solutions to the problem identified. More strategies need to be put in place thus women organizations need more funds in order to fight against women violence.

Promoting gender equality and ending domestic violence should not be treated as an option but should be given priorities since it claims lives of innocent women, children and young girls. The issue not only needs attention from the women groups but also attention from the national, regional, local and international levels. Women groups have come up in support of women rights and fight against domestic violence and other types of discrimination and exploitation. Women organizations and movements ensure women are made aware of their rights and educated on measures of reporting those who violate their rights. The campaigns are initiatives of women movements who push the government to ensure that women are respected and that preventive measures are put in place in order to combat violence against women. Looking at an international level, violence against women was addressed by the United Nations since it was an important issue that needed immediate action and prevention measures carried out. The women organizations had dealt with some violence such as women trafficking for prostitution therefore the UN came in support of what the women organizations had began. Violence against women has been reported and documented by different bodies such as the UN, different media houses and organizations that have received violence cases. Acts of violence against women are well documented since violence cases continue to be reported especially in African countries. Most women are seen to persevere to the abuse since they are not able to report since the community and family endorses some forms of the domestic violence. Some women go through verbal abuse where they are insulted by men therefore end up suffering from traumas. Therefore domestic violence needs to be addressed further so that it can be eradicated fully.

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